k^.('''7 


^ 


u.  s.  depart:\iext  of  agriculture, 

BUREAU    OF   ENTOMOLOGY- BULLETIN   No.  75. 

L:  O.  HOWARD.  Entomologist  and  Chief  of  Bureau. 


MISCELLANEOUS  PAPERS  ON  APICULTURE. 


I.  PEOBIICTION  AND  CARE  OF  EXTRACTED  HONEY. 

P,y  K.  y.  PHILLIPS,  Ph.  D.,  In  Charge  of  Apiculture. 

METHODS  OF  HONEY  TESTING  FOR  BEE  KEEPERS. 

By  C.  A.  BROWNE,  Ph.  D.,  Chief,  Su^ar  Laboratory,  Bureau  of  Chemistry. 

IL   ^VAX  MOTHS  AND  AMERICAN  FOUL  BROOD. 

By  K.  P.  PHILLIPS,  Ph.  D.,  In  Charge  of  ApicuUure. 

III.   BEE  DISEASES  IN  MASSACHUSETTS. 

By  BURTON  N.  GATES,  Expert  in  Apiculture. 

IV.   THE  RELATION  OF  THE  ETIOLOGY  (CAUSE)  OF  BEE  DISEASES 
TO  THE  TREATMENT. 

By  C.  F.  WHITE,  PH.  D.,  Expert  in  Bacteriology. 

V.   A  BRIEF  SURVEY  OF  HAWAIIAN  BEE  KEEPING. 

By  E.  P.  PHILLIPS,  Ph.  D.,  In  Charge  of  ApicuUure.  "    ^ 

VI.   TIJE  STATUS  OF  APICULTURE  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

By  E.  F.  PHILLIPS,  Ph.  D.,  In  Charge  of  Apiculture. 

VII.  BEE  KEEPING  IN  MASSACHUSETTS. 

By  BURTON  N.  GATES,  Expertcin  Apiculture. 


AYASHINGTON: 

GOVERNMENT    PRINTING    OFFICE, 

1911. 


U.  S.  DEPARTMENT   OF  AGRICULTURE, 

BUREAU    OF  ENTOMOLOGY— BULLETIN   No.  75. 

L.  O.  HOWARD.  Entomologist  and  Chief  of  Bureau. 


MISCELLANEOUS  PAPERS  OX  APICULTURE. 


I.  PRODUCTION  AND  CARE  OF  EXTRACTED  HONEY. 

By  E.  F.  PHILLIPS.  Ph.  D.,  In  Charge  of  Apiculture. 

METHODS  OF  HONEY  TESTING  FOR  BEE  KEEPERS. 

By  C.  A.  BPvOWNE.  Ph.  D.,  Chief.  Sugar  Laboratory.  Bureau  of  Chemistry. 

II.   WAX  MOTHS  AND  AMERICAN  FOUL  BROOD. 

Bv  E.  F.  PHILLIPS,  Ph.  D.,  /n  Charge  of  Apiculture. 

III.   BEE  DISEASES  IN  MASSACHUSETTS. 

By  BURTON  N.  GATES,  Expertin  Apiculture. 

l\.   THE  RELATION  OF  THE  ETIOLOGY  (CAUSE)  OF  BEE  DISEASES 
TO  THE  TREATMENT. 

By  G.  F.  WHITE,  Ph.  D.,  Expert  in  Bacteriology. 

\.   A  BRIEF  SURVEY  OF  HAWAIIAN  BEE  KEEPING. 

By  E.  F.  PHILLIPS,  Ph.  D.,  In  Charge  of  Apiculture. 

YI.   THE  STATUS  OF  APICULTURE  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

By  E.  F.  PHILLIPS,  Ph.  D.,  In  Charge  of  Apiculture. 

YII.   BEE  KEEPING  IN  MASSACHUSETTS. 

By  BURTON  N.  GATES,  Expert  in  Apiculture. 


WASHINGTON: 

GOVERXMEXT     PRINTING     OFFICE. 
1911. 


7?  f  'REA  ( '  OF  ENTOMOLOa  Y. 

L.  O.  Howard,  Entomologist  and  Chief  of  Bureau. 

C.  L,  Marlatt,  Entomologist  and  Acting  Chief  in  Absence  of  Chief. 

R.  S.  Clifton,  Executive  Assistant. 

W.  F.  Tastet,  Chief  Clerk. 

V.  H.  Chittenden,  in  charge  of  truck  crop  and  stored  product  insect  investigations. 

A.  D.  Hopkins,  in  charge  of  forest  insect  investigations. 

\V.  D.  Hunter,  in  charge  of  southern  field  crop  insect  investigations. 

F.  M.  Webster,  in  charge  of  cereal  and  forage  insect  investigations. 

A.  L.  Quaintance,  in  charge  of  deciduous  fruit  insect  investigations. 
E.  F.  Phillips,  in  charge  of  bee  culture. 

D.  M.  Rogers,  in  charge  of  preventing  spread  of  moths,  Jield  work. 
RoLLA  P.  CuRRiE,  in  charge  of  editorial  work. 
Mabel  Colcord,  librarian. 

Bee  Culture  Investigations. 
E.  F.  Phillips,  in  charge. 

G.  F.  White,  expert  in  bacteriology. 

B.  N.  Gates, a  A.  H.  McCray,  apicultural  assistants. 
J,  A.  Nelson,  R.  E.  SnodgrasSj^  agr^'nis  and  experts. 
Ellen  M,  Dashiell,  entomological  preparator. 

T.  B.  Symons,  College  Park,  Md.,  collaborator  for  Maryland. 
H.  A.  Surface,  Harrisburg,  Pa.,  collaborator  for  Pennsylvania. 

«  Resigned. 


LETTER  OF  TRANSMITTAL 


United  States  Department  of  Agriculture, 

BunEAU  OF  Entomology, 
WasJiington,  D.  C,  December  3,  1910. 
Sir:  I  have  the  honor  to  transmit  herewith,  for  pubhcation  as 
Bulletin   Xo.    75,    seven   papers   dealing   with   bee   culture.     These 
papers,  which  were  issued  separately  during  the  years  1907,  1908, 
and  1909,  are  as  follows:  Production  and  Care  of  Extracted  Honey, 
by  E.  F.  Phillips,  and  Methods  of  Honey  Testing  for  Bee  Keepers, 
by  C.  A.  Bro\\Tie;  Wax  Moths  and  American  Foul  Brood,  by  E.  F. 
Phillips;  Bee  Diseases  in  Massachusetts,  by  Burton  X.  Gates;  The 
Relation  of  the  Etiology  (Cause)  of  Bee  Diseases  to  the  Treatment, 
by  G.  F.  White;  A  Brief  Survey  of  Hawaiian  Bee  Keeping,  by  E.  F. 
Phillips;  The  Status  of  Apiculture  in  the  United  States,  by  E.  F. 
Phillips;  Bee  Keeping  in  Massachusetts,  by  Burton  X.  Gates. 
Respectfully, 

L.  O.  Howard, 

Chief  of  Bureau. 
Hon.  James  Wilson, 

Secretary  of  Agriculture, 


in 


CONTEXTS  <• 


Page. 

Production  and  care  of  extracted  honey E.  F.  Phillips. .  1 

Introduction 1 

The  advantages  of  the  production  of  extracted  honey 2 

Method  of  producing  extracted  honey 3 

The  ripening  of  honey 7 

The  granulation  of  honey 9 

Heating  honey  for  the  destruction  of  the  bacteria  of  disease 12 

Packing  of  extracted  honey 12 

The  production  of  ' '  candied  "  honey 13 

Honey  types 14 

Methods  of  honey  testing  for  bee  keepers C.  A.  Browne. .  16 

Wax  moths  and  American  foul  brood E.  F.  Phillips. .  19 

Introduction 19 

Work  of  the  large  wax  moth  (Galleria  mellonella  L.) 20 

Work  of  the  lesser  wax  moth  (Achroia  grisella  Fab.) 21 

Conclusion 21 

Bee  diseases  in  Massachusetts Burton  N.  Gates. .  23 

Introduction 23 

The  two  known  bee  diseases ' 24 

Damage  from  bee  diseases 25 

Present  extent  of  bee  diseases  in  Massachusetts 2G 

Evidence  that  bee  diseases  were   not   recently  introduced   into  Massa- 
chusetts   , 27 

The  spread  of  bee  diseases 29 

Brood  diseases  can  be  controlled 30 

A  brief  account  of  treatment  for  brood  diseases 31 

The  relation  of  the  etiology  (cause)  of  bee  diseases  to  the  treatment. 

a.  F   White. .  33 

Introduction 33 

Etiology  (cause)  of  diseases 34 

Predisposing  causes 34 

Exciting  causes 35 

Treatment  of  disease 38 

American  foul  brood 39 

European  foul  brood 41 

Bo-called  ' "  pickled  brood  " 41 

Paralysis 41 

Summary  and  conclusions 42 

«The  eight  papers  constituting  this  bulletin  were  issued,  two  on  December  19,  and 
one  each  on  December  31,  1907,  June  30  and  December  26,  1908;  January  19,  January 
25,  and  May  24,  1909,  respectively. 

V 


VI  MISC'KLLANEUUS   PAPERS   ON    APlCLLTUKE. 

Page. 

A  brief  survey  of  Ilawaiian  bee  keepinc; E.  F.  Phillips. .  43 

Introduction 43 

Publications  on  Hawaiian  bee  keeping 43 

Bee  keepers'  association 44 

Methods  of  management 44 

"Bee  rights" 45 

Extent  of  the  industry 45 

Sources  of  honey 47 

Introduction  of  honey  plants 54 

Wax  production 54 

Disease  survey 56 

The  status  of  apiculture  in  the  United  States E.  F.  Phillips. .  59 

Introduction 59 

Scope  of  the  industry 61 

Present  sources  of  loss 71 

The  needs  and  possibilities  of  apiculture 76 

Summary 79 

Bee  keeping  in  Massachusetts Burton  N.  Gates. .  81 

Historical  sketch 81 

Experience  of  bee  keepers  in  Massachusetts 84 

Number  of  colonies  per  bee  keeper 85 

Distribution  of  bees  in  Massachusetts 86 

Increase  in  number  of  colonies 87 

Production  of  honey  and  wax 87 

Sources  of  honey 89 

Periods  of  nectar  secretion  in  different  localities 93 

Races  of  bees 96 

Hives 97 

Wintering 98 

Bees  in  greenhouses 99 

The  bee  market 102 

Enemies 103 

Bee  diseases 105 

Bee  keepers'  organizations 105 

Summary 106 

A  list  of  the  more  important  articles  on  bee  keeping  in  Massachusetts 107 

Index Ill 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


PLATES. 

Page. 
Plate  I.     Work  of  the  large  wax  moth  (Galleria  mellonella)  in  comb  infected 

with  American  foul  brood 20 

II.     Hive  infected  with  American  foul  brood,  the  frames  removed  to 

show  work  of  the  large  wax  moth  {Galleria  mellonella) 20 

III.  Work  of  the  lesser  wax  moth  (Achroia  grisella)  in  comb  infected  with 

American  foul  brood 20 

IV.  Map  showing  distribution  of  bee  diseases  in  Massachusetts  and  pos- 

sible sources  of  infection  from  neighboring  States 23 

V.     Map  of  the  Hawaiian  Islands 43 

VI.     Blends  of  algarroba  honey  and  honeydew  from  the  Hawaiian  Agri- 
cultural Experiment  Station 44 

VII.     Fig.  1. — A  typical  Hawaiian  apiar>',  the  hives  on  stands  to  prevent 

ant  attacks.     Fig.  2. — An  apiary  in  a  coffee  plantation 46 

VIII.     Fig.  1. — Part  of  an  algarroba  forest.     Fig.  2. — A  lantana  jungle 48 

IX.     Fig.  1. — An    apiary    near    a    sugar-cane    field.     Fig.    2. — Molasses 

trough  for  feeding  cattle 50 

X.     Fig.  1. — Hau  hedge.     Fig.  2. — A  hive  set  up  in  cans  to  keep  out  ants.  54 

TEXT   FIGURES. 

Fig.  1.  Proportionatelossof  bees  wintered  in  cellars  and  on  summer  stands 99 

2.  Approximate  location  of  greenhouses  in  which  bees  are  used  for  the  pol- 
lination of  cucumbers 100 

VII 


U.  S.  D.  A..  P..  E.   Bui.  7',.  Part  I.  A..  December  19,   1907. 

MISCELLAXEOUS  PAPERS  ON  APICULTURE. 


PRODUCTION  AND  CARE  OF  EXTRACTED  HONEY 

Ry  E.  F.  Phillips.  Vh.  D., 
In  Charf/r  of  Apkultiire. 

INTRODUCTION. 

Since  the  invention  of  the  centrifugal  honey  extractor,  in  1865,  and 
its  introduction  into  America,  a  constantly  increasing  proportion  of 
the  honey  of  the  United  States  has  been  put  on  the  market  as  ex- 
tracted. Formerly  honey  was  rendered  free  from  comb  by  mashing 
full  combs  of  honey  and  straining  the  liquid  through  a  cloth.  This  is 
"  strained  honey.''  but  the  same  name  still  clings,  in  some  quarters,  to 
the  article  removed  from  the  comb  by  centrifugal  force.  The  pro- 
duction of  extracted  honey  requires  much  less  labor  on  the  part  of 
the  bee  keeper  than  does  the  production  of  comb  honey,  and  it  has 
several  advantages  over  the  latter.  The  principal  reason  why  ex- 
tracted honey  is  more  generally  produced  in  the  United  States  than 
formerly  may  probably  be  found  in  the  increasing  demand  for  honey 
for  baking  and  confectionery  purposes ;  considerably  more  than  half 
of  the  honey  put  on  the  markets  is  used  in  this  way. 

The  ease  with  which  extracted  honey  may  be  adulterated  has,  how- 
ever, made  the  general  public  sceptical  as  to  its  use  for  table  purposes; 
glucose,  cane  sugar,  invert  sugar,  and  other  adulterants  have  been 
very  extensively  used,  and  are  still  used  to  some  extent.  However, 
the  passage  of  the  food  and  drugs  act  of  June  30,  1906.  and  the  recent 
work  of  this  Department  in  the  inspection  of  the  honey  market  have 
resulted  in  much  good,  and  persons  who  have  openly  adulterated  ex- 
tracted honey  in  the  past  are  now  generally  obeying  the  law.  AMiile 
there  is  still  some  cause  for  complaint,  the  percentage  of  adulteration 
must  gradually  decrease.  The  effect  of  pure-food  agitation  can  not 
but  result  in  great  good  to  the  honest  honey  producer  and  bottler. 

The  chemical  detection  of  honey  adulteration  has  been  made  more 
certain  by  the  recent  investigations  of  Dr.  C.  A.  Browne,  of  the 
Bureau  of  Chemistry,  and  because  of  the  improved  methods  advo- 
cated by  him  the  detection  of  infringements  of  pure-food  laws  will 

1 


2  MISCELLANEOUS    PAPERS    ON    APICULTURE. 

be  easier  in  the  future.  For  a  discussion  of  this  work  the  reader  is 
referred  to  Bulletin  No.  110  of  the  Bureau  of  Chemistry,  entitled 
''  Chemical  Analysis  and  Comix)sition  of  American  Honeys." 

Some  of  the  common  practices  of  bee  keepers  are,  however,  open 
to  serious  (juestion,  and  it  is  primarily  to  call  attention  to  these  that 
the  present  paper  is  presented.  It  is  possible  to  treat  pure  high- 
f>:rade  extracted  honey  so  that  on  chemical  examination  it  would  be 
condemned  or  called  in  (piestion.  In  the  past  there  has  been  some 
trouble  in  cases  where  chemists  have  declared  honeys,  to  which  noth- 
in<r  has  been  added,  to  be  adulterated;  part  of  the  fault  possibly  lies 
with  the  use  of  poor  methods  by  chemists,  but  not  all  of  it.  If  a  bee 
keeper  treats  pure  honey  so  that  its  chemical  composition  is  changed, 
it  is  no  longer  honey,  and  should  not  be  sold  for  such.  Several  of 
the  most  widely  circulated  text-books  on  ajiiculture  advocate  very 
questionable  practices. 

There  are  several  text-books  giving  detailed  information  as  to  the 
production  and  care  of  extracted  honey.  It  is  not  the  purpose  of 
this  paper  to  replace  these,  but  to  point  out  the  main  principles  to  be 
observed,  and  especially  to  call  attention  to  a  few  points  which  do 
not  seem  to  be  understood  by  the  majority  of  honey  producers.  Many 
details  which  are  apparently  unnecessary  in  most  cases  are  omitted, 
since  the  writer  believes  that  each  bee  keeper  must  find  out  many 
minor  details  in  his  own  experience,  and  less  important  phases  of 
the  work  may  better  be  learned  from  other  sources. 

THE  ADVANTAGES  OF  THE  PRODUCTION  OF  EXTRACTED   HONEY. 

It  is  not  the  purpose  of  this  paper  to  advocate  the  production  of 
extracted  honey  as  preferable  to  that  of  comb  honey,  nor  would  it  be 
at  all  desirable  to  have  the  production  of  fancy  comb  honey  dimin- 
ished. For  the  benefit  of  the  honey  market,  however,  it  could  not 
result  in  anything  but  good  Avere  the  poorer  grades  of  comb  honey 
to  be  sold  as  extracted.  The  discolored  ("travel-stained")  and 
irregularly  or  j^artially  capped  comb  honey  found  on  so  many  mar- 
kets is  a  poor  advertisement  for  the  the  bee  keeper  who  tries  to 
produce  a  fancy  article. 

The  production  of  extracted  honey  means  considerably  less  labor 
for  the  bee  keeper  and  also  less  work  of  certain  kinds  for  the  bees, 
for  it  is  not  necessary  for  the  latter  to  secrete  so  much  wax.  Since 
it  takes  several  i)()un(ls  of  lioney  under  most  conditions  to  produce  1 
pound  of  wax,  the  surplus  per  colony  is  greater  with  extracted  honey 
than  with  comb,  but  this  is  compensated  by  the  fact  that  comb  honey 
of  ('(jual  grade  universally  sells  at  a  higher  j)rice. 

In  the  i)roduction  of  extracted  honey  it  is  much  easier  to  control 
swarming,  since  the  brood  chamber  is  not  contracted  so  much  and  the 
(jueen  has  an  ()2)])ort unity  to  work  to  her  maximum  capacity.     On 


PRODUCTION    AND    CARE    OF    EXTRACTED    HONEY.  6 

the  other  hand,  the  colony  is  usually  stronger,  with  more  field  bees; 
this  is  probably  a  large  factor  in  the  increased  amount  of  surplus 
obtained  from  a  colony  run  for  extracted  honey. 

When  the  honey  flow  begins,  the  bees  can  at  once  commence  to  store 
hone}^  in  extracting  combs,  provided  the  bee  keeper  is  careful  to  put 
them  on  in  time,  but  in  comb  honey  production  it  is  first  necessary 
for  the  bees  to  secrete  a  considerable  quantity  of  wax  before  there  is 
room  for  honey  in  the  surplus  boxes  or  sections  and  honey  is  con- 
sequently stored  in  the  brood  chamber:  if  much  honey  is  stored  here, 
the  queen  is  cramped  for  room  to  lay.  The  novice  at  extracted  honey 
production  should  be  careful  not  to  extract  so  much  of  the  honey  in 
the  hive  that  the  bees  will  not  have  enough  to  live  on.  This  is  a 
very  common  error  until  the  bee  keeper  is  taught  by  experience  how 
much  to  extract.     It  is  better  to  extract  too  little  than  too  much. 

METHOD   OF   PRODUCING   EXTRACTED   HONEY. 

THE    HIVE. 

The  hive  used  for  extracted  honey  production  should  be  at  least  as 
large  as  10  frames.  However  strongly  the  advocates  of  8-frame 
hives  or  even  smaller  ones  may  urge  the  advantage  of  a  contracted 
brood  chamber  m  order  to  crowd  the  surplus  honey  into  the  upper 
stories,  certainly  these  small  hives  have  little  place  in  the  production 
of  extracted  honey.  The  queen  should  have  at  least  10  frames  for 
brood  rearing,  if  the  bee  keeper  is  to  expect  the  maximum  results. 
The  use  of  large  hives  is  upheld  by  the  practices  of  the  largest  and 
best  extracted-honey  producers  of  the  United  States,  and  the  smaP 
hives  have  small  sale  among  extensive  producers. 

BROOD    MANIPULATION. 

In  the  production  of  honey,  either  comb  or  extracted,  it  must  be 
remembered  that  if  the  honey  flow  is  short,  only  those  bees  which  are 
fully  developed  at  the  beginning  of  the  flow  are  of  any  value  in  honey 
gathering.  The  amount  of  brood  reared  normally  increases  at  the 
beginning  of  a  honey  flow,  especially  with  Italian  bees,  but  this  brood 
is  rarely  of  much  use  in  producing  honey  gatherers.  In  many  cases 
it  may  be  desirable  to  retard  brood  rearing  at  the  beginning  of  the  flow 
by  caging  the  queen  or  even  by  removing  frames  of  brood.  On  the 
other  hand,  it  is  advisable  to  see  to  it  that  brood  rearing  is  extensive 
for  several  weeks  before  a  honey  flow  is  expected.  This  may  be 
brought  about  by  stimulative  feeding  and  by  the  cautious,  spreading 
of  brood  in  the  colony.  This  procedure  usually  pays  well.  A  care- 
ful study  of  locality  conditions  is  necessary  before  planning  opera- 
tions of  this  nature. 


4  MISCELLANEOUS    PAPERS    ON    APICULTURE. 

TiERlxr;. 

Boforo,  or  just  at  tlio  time  of  the  hoginniiiir  of  tho  honey  flow,  a 
hive  body  exactly  simihir  to  the  brood  chamber  should  be  given  to 
the  colony.  Many  bee  keepers  put  only  8  or  9  frames  in  a  10-frame 
hive  body  used  as  a  suri)lus  chamber  so  that  the  bees  will  build  thick 
combs.  Since  in  uncaj)ping  the  honey  the  comb  is  cut  down  to  about 
normal  thickness,  this  gives  a  place  for  the  immediate  storing  of  sur- 
l)lus  honey  and  at  the  same  time  permits  the  bees  to  secrete  some  wax. 
The  })hysiology  of  wax  secretion  is  very  imperfectly  understood,  but 
probably  wax  is  always  secreted,  to  a  greater  or  less  extent,  during  a 
heavy  honey  flow,  and  by  spacing  wide  this  wax  is  saved  to  the  bee 
keeper. 

As  the  frames  of  the  second  hive  body  become  filled,  the  honey  may 
either  be  extracted  at  once  and  the  frames  returned  to  be  refilled  or  an 
additional  hive  body  full  of  frames  may  be  put  directly  over  the 
brood  chamber  and  below  the  first  surplus  body.  Bees  go  unwillingly 
through  combs  of  sealed  honey  to  empty  combs  higher  up,  but  the  new 
combs  should  be  between  the  first  two  hive  bodies.  The  reasons  for 
tiering  up  hives  rather  than  immediate  extraction  will  be  discussed 
under  the  heading  of  ''  Ripening  honey."  This  operation  may  be  con- 
tinued as  long  as  room  is  required,  and  the  bees  should  never  be 
unduly  cramped  for  room.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  usually  not  desir- 
able to  give  too  much  room  at  one  time  for  surplus,  for  the  honey 
may  be  spread  over  all  the  combs  and,  as  a  result,  the  cells  capped 
when  not  drawn  out  well.  It  is  sometimes  desirable  in  the  early 
part  of  the  season  to  give  only  two  or  three  frames  for  surplus  at 
first,  gradually  increasing  the  number  as  necessity  arises.  This 
is  particularly  the  case  in  uncertain  weather  or  in  a  light  honey  flow. 

AVhen  the  surplus  combs  are  first  put  on,  one  or  two  frames  con- 
taining brood  with  the  adhering  bees  are  frequently  placed  in  the  sec- 
ond story  and  empty  frames  put  in  their  place  in  the  brood  chamber. 
By  this  means  the  bees  at  once  get  into  the  second  story,  and  this 
manipulation  is  a  very  desirable  thing  where  brood  frames  are  used 
for  extracting.  When  only  clean  combs  are  used,  these  brood  frames 
may  be  returned  to  the  brood  chamber  in  a  day  or  two,  for  by  that 
time  they  are  usually  no  longer  needed.  Of  course  care  must  be 
taken  not  to  lift  tlie  i]\wvu  to  the  second  story  above  the  perfo- 
rated zinc. 

Some  bee  keej)ers  prefer  the  use  of  shallow  extracting  combs  of  a 
depth  about  half  that  of  the  ordinary  brood  frame.  The  advantage  of 
such  a  size  of  frame  is,  briefly,  the  possibility  of  putting  on  a  smaller 
amount  of  storing  room  at  one  time,  in  consequence  of  which  the 
honey  is  capped  over  in  a  better  manner.  In  other  words,  the  forcing 
methods  of  comb  honey  production  are  carried  over  into  the  i^roduc- 


PRODUCTION    AND    CARE    OF    EXTRACTED    HONEY.  0 

tion  of  extracted  honey.  It  Avoiild  certainly  be  un\vi>:e  to  recommend 
or  condemn  this  system  in  general,  for  its  use  should  be  governed  by 
local  conditions  of  the  honey  flow.  In  this  case,  as  in  many  others, 
the  maximum  results  may  not  be  expected  without  a  careful  study  of 
local  conditions.  Bee  keepers  talk  a  great  deal  about  "  locality  differ- 
ences," and,  as  generally  used,  the  term  ''  locality  "  is  only  an  excuse 
for  a  lack  of  information  as  to  the  true  cause  of  various  observed 
facts.  It  is  nevertheless  most  true  that  there  are  scores  of  local 
differences  which  are  great  enough  to  bring  success  or  failure,  accord- 
ing as  they  are  studied  or  neglected. 

PERFORATED    ZINC. 

The  use  of  a  perforated  zinc  queen-excluding  board  between  the 
brood  chamber  and  the  surplus  bodies  is  gaining  in  popularity. 
Without  this  zinc  the  queen  is  likely  to  go  into  the  second  story,  or 
even  higher,  particularly  toward  the  close  of  the  season.  Some  bee 
keepers  prefer  to  use  combs  for  extracting  which  have  never  been  used 
for  brood,  and  if  this  plan  is  followed  the  perforated  zinc  is  abso- 
lutely^ necessary.  Honey  extracted  from  dark  combs  which  have  been 
used  for  brood  is  darker  in  color  as  a  rule  than  that  produced  in 
combs  which  have  never  contained  brood.  This  is  doubtless  due  to 
the  fact  that  a  certain  amount  of  the  larval  skins  and  larval  excreta 
which  are  packed  at  the  bottom  of  brood  cells  becomes  dissolved  in 
the  hone}^  These  deposits  in  the  cells  are  usually  spoken  of  as 
"  cocoons,"  but  certainly  only  a  small  part  is  really  the  silk  of  the 
cocoon.  If  this  really  were  merely  a  cocoon,  no  possible  objection 
could  be  made  to  the  use  of  brood  combs  for  extracting.  It  would 
probably  do  little  good  to  advocate  the  universal  use  of  only  such 
combs  as  had  not  been  used  for  brood  rearing  in  the  production  of 
extracted  honey,  but  a  strict  regard  for  cleanliness  would  most 
assuredly  demand  it. 

REMOVING    HONEY    FR0:M    THE    HIVE. 

Honey  should  not  be  taken  from  the  hive  until  fully  ""  ripened." 
AATien  the  time  comes  to  extract,  the  frames  should  be  lifted  from  the 
hive  and  the  adhering  bees  shaken  or  brushed  oft'.  They  may  be 
brushed  off  with  a  regular  bee  brush,  many  styles  of  which  are  manu- 
factured, or  a  bunch  of  grass  or  weeds  will  usually  answer  as  well. 
The  only  advantage  of  a  regular  brush  is  that  it  is  always  ready 
for  use. 

If  the  honey  flow  is  over  or  the  bees  are  hard  to  manipulate  on 
account  of  their  stinging,  a  bee  escape  is  desirable.  The  escape  is 
so  arranged  that  the  bees  can  pass  down  to  the  storj^  below  with 
comparative  ease  but  can  not  get  back.     Within  a  few  hours  the 


6  MISCELLANEOUS    PAPERS    ON    APICULTURE. 

upper  story  is  cloarod  of  bees  and  the  frames  of  honey  may  be  re- 
moved easily.  If  the  queen  is  in  the  upper  story,  however,  as  she 
may  be  if  no  perforated  zinc  is  used,  or  as  she  occasionally  is  any- 
how, the  bees  will  not  desert  the  brood,  and  there  will  still  be  bees 
on  the  combs.  Escapes  may  be  put  on  by  quickly  lifting  the  upper 
story  and  inserting  the  board  in  the  evening,  and  by  the  next  morning 
the  upper  story  will  usually  be  entirely  clear  of  bees. 

After  the  combs  are  removed  from  the  hive,  they  should  be  kept 
covered  so  that  the  bees  in  the  air  will  not  begin  to  rob.  The  manner 
of  carrying  them  to  the  extracting  room  will  depend  on  the  number 
of  combs  to  be  carried  and  the  arrangement  of  the  apiary.  Tin 
buckets  holding  five  combs  at  a  time  may  be  used;  an  extra  hive  body 
is  often  fixed  with  a  handle  and  cloth  cover,  or  the  entire  hive  body 
may  be  carried  in  on  a  cart  or  otherwise  if  it  is  free  from  bees. 

THE    EXTRACTING    ROOM. 

The  place  where  the  honey  is  extracted  should  be  so  arranged  that 
no  bees  can  enter  it  when  attracted  by  the  odor  of  the  honey.  The 
windows  should  be  so  built  that  if  some  bees  do  enter  the}^  can  easily 
get  out  through  bee  escapes  or  cones  so  constructed  that  no  other  bees 
will  be  able  to  find  the  opening.  Bee  escapes  may  be  used,  but  usu- 
ally a  better  plan  is  to  have  the  windows  covered  with  wire  cloth 
tacked  on  the  outside,  the  wire  cloth  extending  above  the  window 
about  G  inches  and  held  away  from  the  side  of  the  house  by  quarter- 
inch  strips.  Bees  almost  always  crawl  upward  and  they  will  crawl 
up  the  netting  and  out  through  the  top  openings,  but  other  bees  will 
not  try  to  get  in  that  way.  A  screen  so  arranged  will  allow  a  very 
large  number  of  bees  to  escape  very  quickly.  .  That  the  extracting 
room  be  "bee  tight"  is  practically  the  only  absolute  requirement. 
Honey  should  never  be  extracted  in  the  open  air  except  during  a 
heavy  honey  flow,  when  bees  are  not  inclined  to  rob.  AVliere  several 
apiaries  are  under  the  management  of  one  man,  it  is  sometimes  de- 
sirable to  make  a  portable  extracting  house  on  wheels  so  that  it  may  be 
taken  from  place  to  place. 

UNCAl'PINC;    HONEY. 

The  honey,  before  it  is  extracted,  must  be  uncapped,  and  this  should 
be  done  with  a  long  knife  which  is  kept  sharp,  clean,  and  warm. 
There  are  several  types  of  uncapping  knives.  If  a  considerable 
amount  of  honey  is  to  be  extracted,  it  is  desirable  to  have  two  or  more 
knives  for  each  operator  so  that  one  may  be  heated  in  hot  water  as 
the  other  is  used. 

As  the  cuppings  of  wax  are  cut  oil'  some  lioney  flows  out,  and  con- 
sequently the  uncapping  should  be  done  over  a  regular  uncapping  box 


PRODUCTION    AXD    CARE    OF    EXTRACTED    HONEY.  7 

or  can.  This  may  be  easily  made  at  home  to  suit  individual  require- 
ments, or  any  one  of  the  several  types  offered  for  sale  may  be  used. 
The  boxes  are  either  made  of  metal  or  lined  with  tin  to  prevent  the 
leakage  of  honey,  and  about  halfway  up  is  a  heavy  wire  netting 
to  catch  the  wax  cappings  and  allow  the  honey  to  drain  off  into  the 
lower  compartment.  This  honey  may  later  be  added  to  what  comes 
from  the  extractor. 

THE    EXTRACTOR. 

The  extractor  consists  of  two  or  more  baskets  into  which  the  combs 
of  honey  are  placed  and  which  are  revolved  inside  or  with  a  can. 
The  rotation  drives  out  the  honey  by  centrifugal  force,  leaving  the 
cells  empty,  provided  the  imcapping  has  been  thoroughly  done. 
"While  the  extractor  is  a  very  simple  machine  in  principle,  its  con- 
struction has  been  the  subject  of  much  experimenting,  and  various 
types  have  been  made.  The  best  type  of  extractor  has  been  found  to 
be  one  in  which  the  surrounding  can  is  stationary  and  the  baskets  are 
arranged  to  revolve  inside  it.  Some  tj^pes  are  now  made  so  that  the 
baskets  may  be  turned  and  both  sides  of  a  comb  emptied  without 
removing  the  frame  from  the  basket  of  the  extractor.  The  more 
elaborate  types,  holding  several  frames  and  driven  by  power,  may  be 
found  described  in  catalogues  of  the  dealers  in  bee  keepers'  supplies. 

The  extracted  honey  flies  to  the  side  of  the  can  and  then  runs  to 
the  bottom  of  the  machine:  it  then  runs  off  through  an  opening  at 
the  bottom  into  a  vessel  or  tank  for  the  purpose.  As  it  leaves  the 
extractor  it  should  be  run  through  a  cheese  cloth  to  remove  any  par- 
ticles of  wax  or  other  foreign  substance  which  may  have  got  into  it. 
The  care  of  the  honey  will  be  described  later. 

Empty  combs  wet  with  honey  should  not  be  returned  to  the  bees 
while  extracting  is  in  progress,  for  fear  of  inciting  robbing.  They 
may  be  piled  up  in  the  extracting  room  until  the  work  is  almost  com- 
pleted and,  if  any  additional  honey  flow  is  expected,  they  may  then 
be  returned.  If  to  be  kept  until  the  next  year,  they  should  be  given 
to  the  bees  for  a  short  time  to  be  cleaned  of  honey,  and  then  removed 
and  put  away  so  that  wax  moths  will  not  destroy  them.  The  great- 
est essential  in  the  production  of  the  maximum  amount  of  extracted 
honey  is  an  adequate  number  of  surplus  combs. 

THE   RIPENING   OF   HONEY. 

AMien  nectar  is  gathered  from  flowers  by  the  worker  bees,  the 
amount  of  water  contained  in  it  is  very  high.  It  is  generally  sup- 
posed that,  by  the  time  bees  reach  the  hive  to  deposit  the  nectar  in  the 
cells,  part  of  this  water  has  been  removed;  at  any  rate,  during  the 
process  of  ripening,  the  amount  of  water  is  very  much  reduced,  until, 
in  thoroughly  ripened  honey,  it  will  not  exceed  25  per  cent  and  is  gen- 


8  MISCELLANEOUS    PAPERS    ON    APICULTURE. 

eniUy  not  iiioiv  than  '20  per  cent.  Sonu'  vcrv  ripe  honeys  will  have  as 
little  as  12  per  cent  of  water  in  them.  If  more  than  25  per  cent  of 
water  remains  in  the  honey  at  the  time  of  extraction,  it  will  probal)ly 
ferment.  The  ripenin<;  of  honey  consists  not  only  of  the  evaporation 
of  the  surplns  water  of  the  nectar,  but  especially  of  the  transforma- 
tion of  the  sufjars  of  the  nectar  into  the  levulose  and  dextrose  of 
honey.  Unripe  honeys  contain  a  lar<]:er  proportion  of  sucrose  or  cane 
sugar,  and  it  is  probable  that  the  longer  the  honey  remains  in  the  hive 
the  less  of  sucrose  will  l)e  found  in  the  honey.  While  honeys  vary  all 
the  way  from  zero  to  8  or  10  per  cent  in  their  sucrose  content,  the  pur- 
est honeys  are  those  which  contain  the  least.  The  official  honey 
standard  of  the  Association  of  Official  Agricultural  Chemists  allows 
8  per  cent  of  sucrose  in  honey. 

It  is  the  policy  of  most  bee  keepers  to  allow  this  ripening  to  take 
place  in  the  hive  by  waiting  until  the  honey  is  almost  all  or  entirely 
capped,  and  this  is  undoubtedly  the  preferable  method.  It  is  a  matter 
of  common  observation  that  honey  which  remains  in  the  hive  for  a 
long  time  has  a  better  "  body  ''  and  has  more  of  the  characteristic 
honey  aroma.  By  ripening  in  the  hive  honey  gets  its  characteristic 
flavor  to  a  greater  extent  than  is  possible  in  evaporation  outside  the 
hive. 

Several  machines  have  been  devised  for  the  artificial  ripening  of 
honey  which  has  been  extracted  "  green."  that  is,  with  too  great  a 
water  content.  The  principle  on  which  all  of  these  are  constructed 
is  the  application  of  heat,  not  to  exceed  160°  F.,  for  a  sufficient  time 
to  reduce  the  amount  of  water  present  to  about  20  per  cent.  Either 
sun  heat  or  artificial  heat  may  be  used.  In  the  western  part  of  the 
United  States  honey  may  be,  and  usually  is,  extracted  before  it  is  all 
capped,  because  it  is  the  general  practice  of  bee  keepers  to  run  the 
honey  directly  from  the  extractor  to  large  tanks,  sometimes  holding 
several  tons,  out  in  the  open,  covered  with  porous  cloth  tightly  tied 
down  to  exclude  bees.  ^lany  of  these  tanks  are  contracted  at  the  top, 
leaving  only  a  comparatively  small  opening.  On  account  of  the 
extreme  dryness  of  the  atmosphere  and  total  lack  of  rain  during  the 
dry  season,  this  partial  evaporation  outside  of  the  hive  takes  place 
very  rapidly. 

The  advocates  of  ri])ening  outside  of  the  hive  argue  that,  if  honey 
is  extracted  before  all  the  water  is  i-emoved  from  it.  the  bees  have 
less  to  do  inside  the  hive  and  can  dexote  almost  all  their  time  to 
gathering  nectar  in  the  field.  This  obviously  would  result  in  an 
increased  amount  of  nectar  and,  consecjuently.  provided  the  forage 
will  produce  it.  in  an  increased  amount  of  honey.  They  argue  that 
it  is  impossible  to  detect  any  dill'erence  between  honey  ripened  inside 
the  hive  and  that  ripened  outside,  as  far  as  llavor  is  concerned,  but 
tiiis  is  a  point  on  which  many  other  bee  keepers  and  experts  in  honey 


PRODUCTION    AND    CARE    OF    EXTRACTED    HONEY.  \3 

tasting  do  not  agree  with  them.  It  must  be  admitted  that,  for  gen- 
eral sale,  the  delicate  aromas  of  well-ripened  honey  are  not  necessary, 
since  the  purchasing  public  is.  as  a  rule,  not  educated  on  this  point; 
but  it  certainly  pays  to  produce  the  very  best  article  possible  for  the 
further  education  of  the  trade,  and,  therefore,  a  thorough  ripening 
inside  the  hive  is  very  much  preferable.  To  insure  this,  it  is  better 
to  tier  up  the  hives  rather  than  extract  as  soon  as  a  hive  body  is  full. 

On  all  honeys,  after  extracting,  if  allowed  to  stand  in  a  vessel, 
a  scum  will  rise  to  the  top.  made  up  of  impurities,  such  as  wax, 
brood,  dead  bees,  and  particles  of  dirt  which  may  get  into  it.  This 
is  particularh'  the  case  with  honeys  which  are  extracted  when  not 
thoroughh^  ripened.  In  all  cases  honey  should  be  strained  as  it 
leaves  the  extractor  and  subsequently  skimmed  until  no  further 
impurities  come  to  the  top.  It  is  frequently  the  practice  to  draw 
honey  from  the  bottom  of  the  tank  in  which  the  honey  is  stored 
through  a  *'  honey  gate,''  so  that  the  impurities  do  not  get  into  the 
smaller  receptacles  in  which  the  honey  is  to  be  packed. 

The  thorough  ripening  of  honey  can  not  be  too  strongly  recom- 
mended. Honey  attracts  moisture,  and  there  is  always  a  tendency 
for  a  very  thin  layer  to  form  on  the  top  in  which  the  water  content 
is  very  high.  In  such  a  film  the  amount  of  sugar  is  low.  the  acetic- 
acid-forming  bacteria  can  grow  rapidly,  and  the  honey  becomes 
sour.  In  thoroughly  ripened  honey  it  is  very  probable  that  a  film 
of  thinner  honey  is  always  present,  but  in  such  a  case  the  sugar  con- 
tent is  so  high  that  the  bacteria  can  not  grow. 

It  is  desirable  that  honeys  from  ditferent  sources  be  kept  separate 
as  far  as  possible  if  the  product  is  to  be  used  for  the  bottling  trade. 
This  can  be  done  only  by  extracting  at  the  close  of  each  honey  flow. 
While  it  is  probably  impossible  to  get  a  honey  from  only  one 
species  of  plant,  except  under  the  most  unusual  circumstances,  at 
the  same  time  honey  may  generally  be  removed  at  the  close  of  each 
flow,  so  that  the  total  quantity  will  have  the  characteristic  flavor  im- 
parted by  a  single  kind  of  flower. 

THE   GRANULATION   OF   HONEY. 

Almost  all  honeys  granulate  or  "  candy  "  after  a  certain  time,  and 
ma}^  become  solid.  This  phenomenon  varies  greatly  with  ditferent 
honeys.  For  example,  alfalfa  honey  produced  in  Colorado  will  often 
granulate  solid  within  a  few  weeks  from  the  time  it  is  extracted, 
while  the  white-sage  honey  of  southern  California  will  often  remain 
liquid  and  entirely  clear  of  crystal  for  two  years  and  sometimes 
longer,  if  properly  put  up.  The  reason  for  this  difference  in  the 
time  of  granulation  will  be  discussed  under  the  heading  of  '*  Types  of 
Honey."  Honey  from  the  same  species  of  plant  varies  somewhat  in 
this  respect  in  different  localities. 
78013°— Bull.  75—11 J 


10  MISCELLANEOUS    PAPERS    ON    APICULTURE. 

Formerly  tlie  general  ])iil)lic  was  suspicious  of  granulated  honey, 
in  the  belief  that  it  contained  cane  sugar,  but,  fortunately,  it  is  now 
generally  understood  that  pure  honeys  will  granulate  in  time,  and 
this  crystallization  is  generally  considered  as  a  test  of  purity.  The 
education  of  the  purchasing  public  has  so  far  progressed  that  now 
some  bee  keepers  prefer  to  sell  their  honey  in  a  solid  granulated  con- 
dition, it  being  cut  up  into  bricks  and  wrapped  in  oil  paper. 

In  bottling  honey,  or  in  putting  honey  from  any  large  receptacle 
into  smaller  ones,  it  is  neceSvSary  to  liquefy  the  entire  quantity  com- 
pletely before  the  operation  is  begun.  This  may  be  done  by  im- 
mersing the  receptacle  in  water  which  has  been  heated  to  160  or 
170°  F.,  and  letting  it  remain  until  the  honey  is  all  liquid  and  free 
from  crystals.  Honey  should  never  be  liquefied  by  direct  applica- 
tion of  heat,  and  it  is  extremely  important  that  it  should  not  reach 
a  temperature  of  more  than  160°  F.  It  is  well  known  to  almost  all 
bee  keei)ers  that  honey  heated  to  higher  temperatures  will  become 
darker  in  color  and  lose  flavor,  and,  consequently,  they  are  generally 
very  careful  on  this  point.  There  is,  however,  a  very  much  more 
important  reason  for  avoiding  high  temepratures.  When  honey  is 
heated  to  180°  F.  and  more,  the  higher  alcohols  wdiich  give  honey 
its  aroma  are  driven  off  and,  more  than  that,  a  decomposition  of  cer- 
tain of  the  sugars  takes  place;  this  is  w-hat  gives  the  darker  color 
to  the  honey.  Of  all  the  various  substances  used  for  the  adulteration 
of  honey  the  one  most  nearly  resembling  pure  honey  is  invert  sugar, 
of  which  Herzfelt's  artificial  honey  is  one  of  the  best  illustrations. 
In  the  detection  of  adulteration,  one  of  the  tests  for  the  addition  of 
invert  sugar  is  based  on  the  presence  of  decomposition  products  due 
to  heat.  These  decomposition  products  in  invert  sugar  are  probably 
identical  with  the  decomposition  products  in  overheated  honey;  at 
any  rate,  honey  which  has  been  heated  to  more  than  180°  F.  for  any 
considerable  time  gives  the  test  for  invert  sugar  and  w^ould,  there- 
fore, be  declared  to  be  adulterated  if  this  test  were  applied  by  a 
chemist.  A  bee  keeper  might  argue  that  he  was  not  infringing  on  the 
pure-food  law  in  overheating  his  honey,  since  he  had  added  nothing 
in  the  way  of  an  adulterant.  If,  however,  he  changes  the  chemical 
composition  of  his  honey  by  injudicious  treatment  it  is  no  longer 
pure  honey,  and  he  has  no  right  to  sell  it  under  that  name. 

It  is  very  much  safer  to  liquefy  honey  at  a  temperature  of  about 
140°  F.  and  thus  avoid  any  danger  of  decomposition.  If  this  lower 
temperature  is  used  it  is  of  course  necessary  to  keep  the  honey  at  this 
temperature  for  a  considerable  time,  but  the  safety  of  such  a  pro- 
ceeding makes  the  extra  time  well  worth  while. 

Two  or  three  of  the  most  widely  circulated  American  text-books 
on  bee  keeping  advocate  the  drawing  off  of  the  liquid  portion  of 
granulated  honey,  particularly  in  the  case  of  honey  which  was  not 


PRODUCTIOX    AND    CARE    OF    EXTRACTED    HONEY.  11 

thoroughly  ripened  before  it  was  extracted.  The  granidated  portion 
is  then  allowed  to  liquefy  and  is  recommended  as  a  very  fine  quality 
of  honey.  This  practice  is  in  no  way  permissible,  as  will  be  readily 
seen  if  the  composition  of  honey  is  studied.  Honey  is  made  up  of 
dextrose  and  levulose  in  about  equal  quantities,  sucrose,  a  certain 
amount  of  ash,  and  water.  In  gi-anulation,  the  dextrose  crystallizes 
readily  and  the  levulose  probably  does  not  granulate  at  all.  If.  then, 
the  liquid  portion,  consisting  largely  of  levulose,  sucrose,  and  water, 
is  removed  by  draining  or  by  pressure,  the  remaining  portion  is  not 
honey,  but  dextrose.  However  fine  the  flavor  of  such  a  compound 
may  be,  it  is  not  honey  and  can  not  truthfully  be  sold  as  such. 

Since  honey  separates  into  its  component  parts  in  granulation,  it 
is  very  necessary  that  all  the  honey  in  the  receptacle  be  liquefied  and 
thoroughly  mixed  before  any  portion  is  removed  from  it  for  bottling 
or  canning.  If,  for  example,  honey  is  in  a  60-pound  can  and  is  to  be 
transferred  to  1-pound  bottles,  it  is  necessary  that  the  entire  60 
pounds  be  liquefied  and  mixed  before  any  is  poured  out  into  bottles, 
in  order  that  all  the  bottles  may  contain  honey  according  to  the  legal 
standard.  Unless  this  is  done,  some  of  the  bottles  will  contain  a 
high  percentage  of  dextrose  and  will  granulate  rapidly,  while  others 
will  contain  a  preponderance  of  levulose  and  will  not  granulate  for  a 
long  time.  Unless  this  mixing  is  done  thoroughly,  none  of  the  bot- 
tles will  contain  absolutely  pure  honey.  In  order  to  protect  himself, 
the  bee  keeper  must  be  xery  careful  on  this  point.  Some  bee  keepers 
prefer  to  pour  the  honey  cold  into  the  bottles  and  heat  it  afterwards 
before  sealing.  As  a  matter  of  convenience  this  has  man}^  j^oints  in 
its  favor,  but  in  view  of  the  separation  into  component  parts  which 
may  take  place  it  is  a  bad  practice.  The  honey  should  first  be  heated 
and  liquefied  completely,  especially  if  honeys  from  several  species  of 
flowers  are  to  be  blended. 

As  previously  stated,  there  has  existed  and  possibly  still  exists  a 
l^opular  idea  that  granulation  indicates  adulteration  by  the  addition 
of  cane  sugar.  This  is  of  course  untrue,  since  pure  honeys  do  granu- 
late solid.  Many  bee  keepers  in  combating  this  idea  have  stated  that 
this  very  granulation  is  a  test  of  the  purity  of  the  honey.  This 
statement,  so  frequently  made,  is  equalty  untrue,  since  invert  sugar, 
one  of  the  adulterants  sometimes  used,  will  also  crystallize  solid  as 
rapidly  as  do  most  honeys. 

Age  seems  to  affect  honey  greatly.  Repeated  granulation  and  lique- 
faction, as  the  temperature  varies  year  after  year,  in  some  way  affects 
the  chemical  composition  of  the  honey,  changing  the  product  so  4hat 
it  may  not  have  the  composition  that  it  had  at  first.  Some  honey 
thirty-five  years  old,  submitted  to  this  Department,  was  found  to 
contain  too  much  sucrose.  A  sample  of  the  same  honey  had  pre- 
viously been  analvzed  bv  two  official  chemists  and  declared  to  be 


12  MISCKLLANEOUS    PAPERS    ON    APICULTURE. 

adulterated;  hut  tlie  history  of  the  sample  precluded  this  possihility. 
The  honey  had  apparently  changed  greatly  with  age  in  appearance 
as  well  as  in  composition. 

Some  bee  keej)ers  make  a  practice  of  adding  a  very  small  amount 
of  glycerin  to  the  honey  to  j)revent  granulation.  This  should  not  be 
done,  for  it  is  adulterating  the  honey.  Some  have  argued  that,  since 
glycerin  costs  so  nnich  more  than  honey,  they  are  not  adulterating 
in  that  they  are  not  adding  something  cheai)er  to  the  honey  to  increase 
their  profit.  According  to  pure-food  laws,  however,  nothing  can  be 
added  to  honey  unless  the  addition  is  specifically  stated,  and  the 
addition  of  even  a  small  amount  of  glycerin  is,  in  the  eyea  of  the  law, 
as  great  an  offense  as  the  addition  of  glucose. 

HEATING   HONEY   FOR  THE   DESTRUCTION   OF   THE    BACTERIA   OF 

DISEASE. 

The  only  condition  under  which  honey  should  be  heated  to  a  higher 
temperature  than  100'^  F.  is  in  the  case  of  honey  which  has  been  ex- 
tracted from  a  colony  containing  fonl  brood.  In  order  to  kill  the 
bacteria  of  either  of  the  brood  diseases,  it  is  desirable  to  dilute  the 
honey  by  adding  an  equal  amount  of  water  and  then  raise  the  temper- 
ature to  the  boiling  point  and  keep  it  there,  allowing  the  mixture 
to  boil  vigorously  for  at  least  thirty  minutes;  in  order  that  no  risk 
may  be  run,  it  is  better  to  make  this  one  hour.  Honey  which  is  so 
treated  is  changed  chemically  and  is  no  longer  pure  honey,  but  it 
makes  a  good  sirup  for  feeding  to  bees  and  is  the  best  way  of  using 
honey  from  an  infected  source.  Too  much  care  can  not  be  exercised 
in  bringing  this  to  the  proper  temperature,  and  it  must  be  remem- 
bered that  the  resulting  product  is  not  honey,  but  a  sirup,  the  chemical 
composition  of  which  is  quite  unlike  that  of  pure  honey. 

PACKING  OF  EXTRACTED  HONEY. 

If  honey  tends  to  granulate  rapidly,  it  will  save  much  trouble  in 
licjuefying  to  put  it  into  the  receptacle  in  which  it  is  to  be  sold  as  soon 
after  extraction  as  possible.  There  will  then  be  no  difficulty  from 
the  various  ingredients  becoming  separated.  To  preserve  the  deli- 
cate aromas  it  is  desirable  that  honey  be  sealed  as  soon  as  possible. 

AMien  honey  is  put  up  in  less  than  3-pound  packages  it  is  generally 
l>ottled.  A  bottle  makes  a  much  more  attractive  package  than  a  tin 
can  and  shows  off  the  contents.  There  is  no  doubt  of  the  fact  that 
honey  sells  largely  on  its  appearance,  and  too  much  care  can  not  be 
exercised  in  packing  and  lalx'lling  so  as  to  make  the  package  attract- 
ive to  the  purchaser.  In  cases  where  a  bee  keeper  sells  directl}^  to  a 
local  trade  he  may  educate  his  customers  to  judge  his  honeys  by  their 
fiavor.  in  which  event  it  is  immaterial  what  kind  of  package  is  used. 


rnoDrcTTox  and  care  of  extracted  honey.  IS 

and  honey  may  even  be  run  out  from  a  large  can  into  a  vessel  fur- 
nished by  the  customer  when  the  honey  is  delivered.  It  is  too  often 
the  case,  however,  that  bee  keepers  put  up  their  honey  in  such  poor, 
unsightly  packages  that  they  can  get  only  a  low  price  for  their 
goods. 

If  honey  is  put  up  in  more  than  3-pound  packages,  tin  cans  are 
generally  used  and  the  most  common  receptacle  is  a  square  can  hold- 
ing 5  gallons  (60  pounds).  Two  of  these  are  usually  boxed  together 
for  shipment.  Square  and  round  cans  of  various  types  are  often 
used  for  smaller  quantities.  Barrels  are  preferred  by  some  for  large 
shipments  for  the  baking  and  confectionery  trade,  but  their  use  can 
not  always  be  advised.  Before  honey  is  put  into  it,  a  barrel  must  be 
thoroughly  dry,  and  tight  when  dry,  because  of  the  fact  that  honey 
takes  up  a  certain  amount  of  moisture,  and  if,  when  the  honey  is  put 
into  it,  the  barrel  is  damp,  the  honey  will  absorb  the  moisture,  caus- 
ing the  barrel  to  leak.  Barrels  also  absorb  a  certain  amount  of 
honey.  In  dry  climates  particularly  barrels  should  be  used  with 
caution. 

AMien  honey  is  packed  in  bottles,  it  is  desirable  that  granulation 
be  retarded,  since  a  bottle  of  partially  granulated  honey  is  not  attract- 
ive. To  aid  in  the  retarding  of  granulation,  the  honey  should  be 
entirely  liquefied  and  thoroughly  mixed  in  a  large  can  and  run  into 
the  bottle  warm.  The  bottle  should  be  as  full  as  possible  and  sealed 
hermetically  while  still  warm.  Granulation  usually  begins  on  the 
edges  of  the  top  line  of  the  hone}^  and  spreads  rapidly  from  these 
points.  This  is  probably  because  some  honey  gets  upon  the  sides 
and  partially  dries.  It  is  therefore  desirable  that  the  honey  fill  the 
bottle  clear  to  the  cover  to  prevent  this.  It  must  also  be  free  of 
bubbles.  Bottles  may  be  hermetically  sealed  b}'  using  some  style  of 
clamp  cover  or  by  sealing  a  cork  with  a  mixture  of  beeswax  and  resin. 
This  mixture  may  be  colored  by  the  addition  of  a  dye.  Granulation 
may  be  considerabh^  retarded  by  keeping  the  honey  at  a  nearly  uni- 
form temperature.  This  should  not  be  less  than  65°  F.  and  is  much 
better  at  90°  to  100°  F.  AAliile  the  honey  is  in  the  hands  of  the  pro- 
ducer or  bottler,  it  may  be  kept  liquid  for  a  long  time  in  this  way, 
but  of  course  when  sold  it  is  generally  subject  to  changes  of  tempera- 
ture. Honey,  either  in  the  comb  or  extracted,  should  never  be  kept 
in  a  cool  or  damp  place. 

THE  PRODUCTION  OF  "  CANDIED  "  HONEY. 

Honeys  of  the  average  type,  relatively  free  from  nonsugars,  such  as 
that  made  from  alfalfa,  soon  granulate  solid  and  are  sometimes  sold 
in  bricks.  Granulation  may  be  hastened  by  changes  of  temperature 
and  by  stirring.     If  it  is  desired  to  have  a  can  of  honey  granulate 


14  MISCELLANEOUS    PAPERS    OX    APICULTURE. 

rapidly,  it  may  bo  carried  from  a  warm  room  out  doors  in  winter  and 
back  a^ain  at  intervals  of  a  day  or  two  for  a  couple  of  weeks.  If 
this  is  accompanied  with  occasional  stirrin^r  when  granulation  first 
begins,  the  whole  can  will  soon  be  a  solid  cake.  Honey  may  also  be 
poured  into  smaller  receptacles,  such  as  waterproof  pasteboard  car- 
riers or  oyster  pails,  and  allowed  to  crystallize  in  the  package  in  which 
it  is  to  be  sold.  If  allowed  to  granulate  solid  in  a  large  tin  can,  the 
tin  may  be  cut  away  and  the  honey  cut  into  bricks  with  fine  wire 
in  the  way  that  prints  of  butter  are  sometimes  prepared. 

A  market  for  "  honey  bricks  "  must  generally  be  built  up  locally, 
for  as  yet  the  general  public  has  not  learned  to  look  for  honey  in  such 
shape.  The  cost  of  the  package  is  less  than  that  of  bottles,  and  the 
granulated  honey  is  by  some  considered  superior  for  table  use  to 
li(piid  honey.  Several  bee  keepers  have  used  this  method  with  suc- 
cess and  claim  that  it  gives  great  satisfaction  to  their  customers. 

HONEY   TYPES. 

It  is  well  known  that  honeys  from  different  plants  vary  consider- 
ably in  taste,  color,  granulation,  etc.  The  taste  and  color  are  given  to 
honey  by  the  plants  from  Avhich  the  nectar  is  derived.  Granulation 
may  be  considered  as  a  property  of  all  honeys,  or  rather  of  the  dextrose 
contained  in  all  of  them,  and,  from  a  study  of  the  chemical  compo- 
sition of  many  samples,  it  seems  probable  that  all  honeys  would  crys- 
tallize were  it  not  for  the  fact  that  some  of  them  contain  an  excess 
of  either  noncrystallizable  levulose  or  dextrin,  gums,  and  other  non- 
sugars.     The  following  table  will  make  this  point  clear: 

I.  Xormal  honey  (from  nectaries  of  flowers). 

L  High   purity    (high    in   sugars,    relatively    low    in   dextrin,   gums,    and 
other  nonsugars). 

A.  Levulose  type,  e.  g.,  mangrove,  tiipelo.  sage. 

B.  Average  ty|)e. 

n.  High  in  sucrose,  e.  g..  alfalfa. 
I).  Low  in  sucrose,  e.  g.,  buckwheat. 
2.  Low   purity    (relatively   high   in  dextrin,  gums,   and  other  nonsugars, 
e.    g.,    basswood.    sumac,    iK)plar,    oak.    hickory,    apple,    most    tree 
honey). 
II.  .Vltnormal  honey   (not  from  nectaries  of  Mowers;  generally  high  in  de.xtrin, 
gums,  and  other  nonsugars). 

1.  Honeydew  honey  (from  aphides  and  other  in.'^ects). 

2.  Coniferous  honey   (plant  exudations  not  from  nectaries). 

Honeys  containing  ai)proximately  the  same  amount  ot  levidose  and 
dextrose  and  which  are  high  in  sugars  (average  type)  granulate 
readily.  Very  few^  honeys  have  more  dextrose  than  levulose.  If, 
however,  the  levulose  is  considerably  greater  than  the  dextrose  (levu- 
lose type),  or  if  the  nonsugars  are  relatively  high   (low  purity  and 


PRODUCTION    AND    CARE    OF    EXTRACTED    HONEY.  15 

abnormal  honeys),  granulation  is  retarded.  Some  honeydew  granu- 
lates rapidly,  but  no  abnormal  honeys  of  that  type  were  included  in 
the  samples  examined,  consequently  they  are  not  included  in  the  table. 
The  use  of  the  terms  "  high  "  and  "  low  *'  purity  in  this  table  must 
not  be  taken  to  indicate  the  comparative  values  of  the  various  honeys. 
Low-purity  honeys  which  have  relatively  more  dextrin,  gums,  and 
other  nonsugars  are  just  as  good  honeys  as  those  of  the  high-purity 
class.  Abnormal  honeys,  however,  are  less  desirable.  The  presence 
of  the  nonsugars  in  low-purity  honeys  may  be  due  largely  to  a  slight 
admixture  of  honeydew,  since  most  honeys  contain  a  trace  of  this.  It 
must  be  remembered  in  considering  this  subject  that  practically  no 
honey  is  from  a  single  species  of  plant,  and  therefore  they  will  vary 
considerably,  according  to  the  other  nectars  added  to  them  as  well  as 
according  to  local  soil  and  climatic  conditions. 


METHODS  OF  HONEY  TESTING  FOR  BEE  KEEPERS/' 

Hy  C.  A.  liKowNK.  rii.  I).. 
Chief.  Siipar  Lahoratoru,  liurcaK  of  (licmlsinj. 

The  most  common  forms  of  adulteration  which  are  practiced  at 
present  in  the  sophistication  of  honey  are  the  addition  of  commercial 
glucose,  cane  sugar,  and  invert  sugar.  The  adulteration  of  honey 
by  dilution  with  water  is  less  commonh^  practiced ;  such  addition 
is  easily  recognized  b}'  the  increased  fluidity  of  the  honey,  and  there 
is,  besides,  the  increased  danger  that  the  product  will  spoil  through 
fermentation.  It  is  often  desirable,  however,  for  the  bee  keeper  to 
know  the  approximate  percentage  of  moisture  in  his  products  in 
order  to  avoid  the  marketing  of  unripe  honey  Avhich  might  exceed 
the  limit  for  water  allowed  by  the  standards  (25  j^er  cent).  The 
average  water  content  of  American  honey,  according  to  the  average 
for  99  pure  samples  analyzed  in  the  Bureau  of  Chemistry,  is  17.59 
per  cent,  so  that  there  is  above  this  a  margin  of  more  than  7  per  cent 
in  which  the  moisture  of  honeys  may  be  allowed  to  fluctuate. 

The  accurate  determination  of  moisture  in  honey  in  the  chemical 
laboratory  is  a  somewhat  complicated  process.  A  carefully  weighed 
amount  of  the  honey  is  evaporated  at  a  temperature  of  about  160°  F. 
in  a  vacuum  chamber  until  no  more  moisture  is  given  oJ0P,  and  the  loss 
in  weight  during  the  interval  is  calculated  as  water.  For  the  bee 
keeper  such  a  method  of  determination  is  too  involved  and  compli- 
cated; there  is.  however,  a  much  simpler  method  by  means  of  which 
the  moisture  content  of  a  honey  can  be  determined  Avith  ease  and 
rapidity  and  with  a  fair  degree  of  accuracy.  This  is  b}-  means  of  a 
specific  gravity  float  or  spindle.  The  liquefied  honey  is  poured  into 
a  tall  cylinder  and  immersed  in  hot  water  of  170°  F.  temperature. 
The  honey  is  stirred  with  a  thermometer  and  as  soon  as  the  tempera- 
ture has  reached  1G0°  ¥.  the  spindle  is  lowered  into  the  honey  and 
allowed  to  come  to  rest.     The  point  at  which  the  surface  of  the  honey 

a  This  pnper  was  prepared  by  Doctor  Browne  of  tlie  Bureau  of  Chemistry  after 
the  coni|)Ietioii  of  his  work  on  lionoy  analysis.  For  greater  detail  the  reader 
is  referred  to  Bulh'tin  110  of  the  Bureau  of  Chenii><try,  entitled  •'Chemical 
Analysis  and  Composition  of  American  Honeys."  This  luilletin  may  he  obtained 
from  the  Superintendent  of  Documents,  (iovernment  Printini;  Ollico,  Washinj?- 
ton.  I).  C.  It  can  not  l)e  obtained  from  the  Bureau  of  Entomology. — E,  F.  P. 
1<) 


METHODS    OF    HONFA'    TESTTNO    FOR    BEE    KEEPERS.  17 

cuts  the  oradiiatijii  mark  upon  the  spindle  indicates  llie  jjercMitage  of 
water  in  the  honey. 

For  the  accurate  determination  of  ghicose,  cane  sugar,  and  other 
adulterants,  the  bee  keeper  will  usually  be  obliged  to  resort  to  the 
services  of  a  chemist.  This  is  especially  true  as  regards  cane  sugar, 
as  there  is  no  simple  test  for  this  substance  which  can  be  applied  by 
the  ordinary  layman.  As  regards  glucose  and  added  invert  sugar, 
however,  there  are  certain  simple  colorimetric  tests  which  can  be 
easily  and  quickly  carried  out. 

A  good  colorimetric  test  for  the  presence  of  commercial  glucose  or 
starch  sirup  in  honey  is  that  of  Beckmann,  by  means  of  a  dilute  solu- 
tion of  iodine  in  potassium  iodide.  One  part  of  the  honey  to  be  ex- 
amined is  dissolved  in  one  part  by  volume  of  Avater  in  a  test  tube 
and  shaken  up  witli  a  few  drops  of  the  iodine  solution.  If  the  honey 
solution  remains  a  pale  yellow,  commercial  glucose  is  probably  absent ; 
if  the  solution  is  colored  a  red  or  purple,  however,  the  presence  of  glu- 
cose sirup  is  clearly  indicated.  In  making  this  test  it  is  alwa^^s  best 
to  carry  out  a  comparative  test  under  similar  conditions,  using  a 
honey  of  known  purity  and  adding  the  same  number  of  drops  of 
iodine  solution.  In  this  manner  a  reliable  comparison  of  colors  can 
be  secured. 

The  adulteration  of  honej^  Avith  invert  sugar  sirup  is  being  prac- 
ticed to  some  extent  in  this  country,  though  not  as  widely  at  present 
as  in  certain  European  countries.  This  sirup  has  in  many  respects 
the  same  composition  as  pure  hone}^;  it  is  deficient,  however,  in  ash, 
albuminoids,  and  other  constituents  which  occur  in  honey  in  small 
amounts.  Through  the  action  of  the  high  temperature  of  boiling  a 
small  quantity  of  decomposition  products  of  sugar  is  produced  in  this 
artificial  honey  which  serves  to  distinguish  it  from  pure  honey  unless 
the  latter  has  been  boiled  for  some  time,  in  which  case  it  also  will  con- 
tain decomposition  products  similar  to  those  contained  in  the  invert 
sugar  sirup.  An  easy  test  for  artificial  invert  sugar  in  honey  is  by 
means  of  a  concentrated  solution  of  aniline  acetate.  This  reagent 
should  be  prepared  freshly  each  time  before  using.  Five  cubic  centi- 
meters of  chemically  pure  aniline  are  shaken  up  with  5  cubic  centi- 
meters of  water  and  2  cubic  centimeters  of  glacial  acetic  acid  added. 
The  milky  emulsion  of  aniline  and  water  should  clear  up  perfectly 
on  addition  of  the  acid.  About  5  cubic  centimeters  of  the  honey  to 
be  tested  are  diluted  in  a  test  tube  with  an  equal  volume  of  water  and 
a  little  of  the  aniline  solution  poured  down  the  walls  of  the  tube  so  as 
to  form  a  thin  layer  upon  the  surface  of  the  liquid.  If  artificial 
invert  sugar  is  present,  a  red  ring  will  form  beneath  this  layer,  and 
on  gently  agitating  the  tube  the  whole  quantity  of  aniline  acetate  will 
be  tinged  this  color,  the  depth  of  coloration   depending  upon  the 


18  MISCELLANKOUS    PAPERS    ON    APICULTURE. 

(luaiility  of  artificial  invert  siipir  pivsent  in  the  mixture.  Pure 
honeys  which  liave  not  been  spoik'd  l)v  overheat in<r  (h)  not  <rive  this 
reaction. 

In  carryinnf  out  the  tests  previously  described  only  a  very  small 
outlay  in  apparatus  will  be  required.  The  special  spindles  for  de- 
terminiuir  the  water  content  of  honey  and  the  other  apparatus  can 
be  obtained  from  any  manufacturer  of  chemical  goods.  Glass  or 
metal  cylinders  for  containing  the  honey  while  spindling  will  be 
needed,  as  also  a  collection  of  test  tubes  and  racks.  A  small  50  cubic 
centimeier  graduated  cylinder  will  also  be  found  useful  for  measur- 
ing out  the  volume  of  honey  solutions  and  of  reagents.  All  appa- 
ratus should  be  thoioughly  cleaned  and  rinsed  after  using,  as  any 
contamination  with  impurities  may  affect  the  accuracy  of  the  tests. 
The  drugs  specified  may  be  purchased  of  any  druggist. 


U.  S.  D.  A.,  B.  E.  Bui.  75.  Part  H.  A..  December  31.  r»: 

MISCELLANEOUS  PAPERS  ON  APICULTURE. 


WAX  MOTHS  AND  AMERICAN  FOUL  BROOD 

By  E.  F.  Phillips.  Ph.  D., 
In  Charge  of  Apiculture. 

INTRODUCTION. 

It  has  generally  been  held  by  bee  keepers  that,  while  the  wax 
moths  often  cause  considerable  damage  by  destroying  surplus 
combs  and  in  other  ways,  they  were  not  an  unmixed  evil,  for  by 
destroying  combs  infected  with  brood  disease  they  were  supposed  to 
remove  the  infection.  Text-books  on  apiculture  and  articles  in 
various  bee  journals  have  repeatedly  reiterated  this  statement. 
Evidently'  no  person  has  seen  fit  to  look  into  the  question  thoroughly, 
and  it  is  the  object  of  the  present  paper  to  record  some  observations 
Avhich  have  been  made. 

Allien  a  bee  larva  dies  from  infection  of  American  foul  brood,  it 
decays  rapidly,  and  the  mass  becomes  ropy,  so  that  if  a  small  stick 
or  pin  is  inserted  in  the  decayed  mass  and  removed,  the  larval  mate- 
rial adheres  to  it  and  will  string  out  for  an  inch  or  more.  This 
ropiness  of  the  dead  larva  is  very  characteristic  of  this  brood  dis- 
ease. Seemingly  this  ropiness  makes  it  impossible  for  the  bees  to 
remove  the  infected  material,  and  when  the  decayed  mass  dries  down 
it  forms  a  scale  which  adheres  so  tightly  to  the  lower  side  wall  of  the 
cell  that  it  can  not  be  removed  without  tearing  the  wax  wall. 

As  the  disease  progresses  in  the  colony  the  various  cells  of  the 
brood  chamber  come  to  contain  diseased  larvae  and,  later,  scales 
formed  of  dried  larvae.  It  is  probable  that  after  a  cell  once  comes  to 
contain  a  diseased  larva,  it  is  almost  impossible  for  another  larva  to 
reach  maturity  in  a  health}'  condition,  consequently  the  number  of 
bees  which  reach  the  adult  condition  is  constantly  reduced  and,  as  the 
old  field  bees  die  and  are  not  fully  replaced,  the  colony  becomes  weak- 
ened and  finally  dies  out  completely. 

19 


20  MISCKLl.ANKOrS    PAPERS    ON    APTf'T^LTURK. 

As  loiiiT  ;is  the  colony  is  slr()n<r  the  wax  moths  can  do  no  damage, 
l)ii(  as  the  hccs  (h'crcasc  in  number  the  combs  offer  a  foothold  to  one  or 
other  of  the  moths  and  within  a  very  short  time  the  whole  hive  is  one 
mass  of  wax  moth  tunnels,  larval  excreta,  and  cocoons.  The  combs 
are  completely  destroyed  and  nothing  remains  but  the  web  and  a  mass 
of  debris  on  the  hive  bottoms.  If  the  moth  larva*  actually  ate  the 
infected  material,  they  would  serve  to  remove  the  infection  where  the 
bee  keeper  is  too  careless  to  do  so — as  is  too  frequently  the  case. 

The  two  wax  moths  differ  greatly  in  their  habits  in  some  respects, 
but  it  is  not  the  purpose  of  this  paper  to  discuss  these  points.  The 
large  wax  moth  {Galleria  mellonella  L.)  is  the  most  widely  dis- 
tributed and  is  found  in  j)ractically  every  part  of  the  United  States, 
and  probabl}'  wherever  the  honey  bee  is  now  kejDt.  The  lesser  wax 
moth  (Achroia  grisella  Fab.),  on  the  other  hand,  is  not  so  widely  dis- 
tributed, but  it  is  known  to  exist  in  various  localities  in  this  country. 

WORK  OF  THE  LARGE  WAX  MOTH. 

{Galleria  tnelUmeUa  L. ) 

Plato  T  is  from  a  photograph  of  a  comb,  infected  with  American  foul 
brood,  on  which  larva^  of  the  large  wax  moth  were  placed.  The  comb 
was  placed  in  a  box  to  exclude  light  and  was  laid  flat  on  a  piece  of 
l)aper.  The  larva?  at  first  worked  on  the  under  side  of  the  comb,  but 
gradually  they  got  to  the  upper  surface.  It  will  be  noticed  that  in 
one  part  of  the  comb  the  lower  side  walls  of  the  cells  remain  intact; 
here  the  dried-down  scales  of  American  foul  brood  were  thickest,  and 
evidently  this  was  the  center  of  the  brood  during  the  time  of  infection. 
The  remainder  of  the  area  formerly  occupied  by  comb  is  nothing 
but  debris,  with  a  few  scales  scattered  here  and  there.  Evidently 
only  where  scales  are  thick  do  they  hold  together  enough  to  stand 
upright.  To  show  how  the  scales  stand  up,  the  web  was  removed 
from  the  surface.  The  background  of  the  photogra]:)h  is  merely  a 
j)iece  of  paper. 

Plate  II  is  a  photograph  of  a  rough  box  used  for  a  hive  during 
some  exi)eriments  in  producing  American  foul  brood  by  the  feeding 
of  pure  cultures  of  BdcUlus  larrd."  The  five  frames  of  this  small 
hive  contained  thousands  of  the  dried-down  scales  so  characteristic 
of  this  disease.  The  box  was  put  away  in  a  closet  and  the  large  wax 
moth  got  into  it,  with  the  result  that  all  the  combs  were  completely 
destroyed.  The  webs  and  empty  frames  were  removed  for  this  photo- 
LH-aph.     The   black   mass   in   the   bottom   of  the   box   is  com})Osed   of 


aClreular  No.  04,  Bureau  of  Entomology,  entitled,  "The  Cause  of  American 
Ki.iil  P.n.od."  I>v  T^r.  (I.  V.  Wliit<>.     Issued  July  'J'.).  VMM. 


Bui.  75.  Pt    II,  Bureau  of  Entomology,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 


Plate 


-^ 


Bui.  75,  Pt.  II    Bureau  of  Entomology,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 


Plate  II. 


Hive  Infected  with  American  Foul  Brood,  the  Frames  Removed  to  Show  Work 
OF  THE  Large  Wax  Moth  <Galleria  mellonella'.    (Original.) 


BuL  75,  Pt.  II.  B'j'eaj  of  Entomology.  U.  S.  Dept.  o'  Agriculture. 


Plate  III. 


WAX    MOTHS    AND    AMERICAN    FOUL    BROOD.  21 

larval  feces  and  scales  in  about  equal  proportion  by  volume.  On  ac- 
count of  the  reduction  of  the  photograph  the  scales  do  not  appear 
plainly:  nevertheless,  this  demonstrates  what  becomes  of  the  scales 
of  American  foul  brood  in  a  set  of  combs  destroyed  by  Gallema  mel- 
lonella.  A  few  scales  are  seen  placed  on  a  card  resting  on  the  mass  of 
feces  and  scales. 

Mr.  Burton  X.  Gates,  of  this  Bureau,  took  some  of  these  scales  and 
put  them  in  a  small  box  with  small  larva^  of  GaUeria  meUoncUa. 
The  scales  remained  untouched  and  the  larv?e  died,  evidently  of 
starvation. 

WORK   OF   THE   LESSER   WAX   MOTH. 
{Achroia  t/riseUa  Fab.) 

Plate  III  is  a  photograph  of  a  comb  taken  from  a  colony  which  had 
died  of  American  foul  brood.  It  was  obtained  by  the  author  in  June, 
1906.  near  Fillmore,  Ventura  County.  Cal..  and  is  of  interest  as  com- 
ing from  an  apiary  which  in  less  than  two  years  had  been  reduced 
from  about  200  colonies  to  15  by  the  ravages  of  this  disease.  ^Alien 
the  apiary  was  visited  there  were  151  hives  in  place,  and  of  these  136 
contained  no  bees.  This  comb  was  wrapped  up  and  put  away  for 
future  study,  but  became  infested  with  Achroia  griseUa.  '\Miether 
it  contained  eggs  when  taken  in  the  apiary  or  whether  the  moths 
entered  after  the  comb  reached  Washington  is  not  known. 

It  is  obvious  from  this  illustration  that  the  larva^  have  not  eaten 
the  scales  formed  by  dried-down  larva^  which  died  of  American  foul 
brood.  This  comb  was  not  cleaned  of  webs  and  illustrates  very  nicely 
the  characteristic  work  of  this  moth. 

After  the  photograph  was  taken  the  scales  were  picked  out  of  the 
frame  and  this  material  was  used  in  some  of  the  inoculation  experi- 
ments recorded  in  Circular  Xo.  91 :  obviously,  therefore,  the  material 
was  still  infectious. 

CONCLUSION. 

In  the  control  of  brood  diseases  of  bees  the  constant  reinfection  of 
apiaries  from  diseased  combs  of  colonies  in  a  wild  state  is  one  of  the 
things  which  must  be  combated  constantly.  It  is  not  difficult  for  a 
bee  keeper  to  rid  his  own  apiary  of  disease,  but  he  must  constantly 
watch  for  an  introduction  of  the  disease  from  wild  bees  or  an  adjoin- 
ing apiar}'.  If  then  the  wax  moths  actually  destroyed  the  infected 
combs  of  wild  colonies  or  of  colonies  in  the  apiaries  of  careless  bee 
keepers,  they  would  be  a  benefit  to  the  industry  to  that  extent.  Nat- 
urally if  the  moth  larvae  eat  out  everything  except  the  scales  and  these 
drop  to  the  bottom  as  shown  in  Plate  II,  they  are  less  available  to 


22  MISCELLANEOUS    PAPERS    ON    APICULTURE. 

other  bees.     If  siiflicieiitly  covered  with  debris,  they  are  to  some  extent 
removed  from  robbing  workers. 

These  results  prove  conchisively  that  the  two  wax  moths,  (ralleria 
mellonella  and  Acht^oia  (jrlsella^  do  not  eat  the  scales  formed  from 
larvae  which  have  died  of  American  foul  brood.  It  is  clear,  therefore, 
that  infectious  material  in  a  colony  dying  of  this  disease  remains  even 
after  the  comb  is  destroyed.  The  one  point  in  favor  of  these  moths, 
from  a  bee  keeper's  standpoint,  is  therefore  disproven. 


1 


Bui.  75,  Pt    111,  Bureau  o(  Entomology,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Ag' 


EXPL/)N/IT/ON: 


/IM£R/C/fA/ 


£U/90P£y4/V 
FOCfl  BfiOOO. 


Map  Showing  Distribution  of  Bee  Diseases  in  Massachusetts  and  Possible  Sources  of  Infection  from  Neighboring  States. 


V.   S.  I).  A..  B.  E.  Bui.  7.^,  Part  III.  A.,  June  30,  1908. 

MISCELLANEOUS  PAPERS  ON  APICULTLRE. 


BEE  DISEASES  IN  MASSACHUSETTS. 

By  Burton  X.  Gates. 
Ejpcrt   in  ApicnUure. 

INTRODUCTION. 

In  MassachiLsetts  bee  keeping  is  not  an  industry  conducted  by  a 
few,  as  in  the  Hawaiian  Islands,  where  four  corporations  harvested 
600  tons  of  hone}'  last  year :  but  there  are  more  than  2.100  men  who 
derive  some  profit  from  their  bees  and  who  have  interests  at  stake. 
There  is  besides,  a  vast,  concentrated,  and  steadily  increasing  popu- 
lation which,  fortunately  for  bee  keepers,  provides  an  almost  unlim- 
ited home  market.  In  order  to  point  out  the  status  of  the  industry, 
the  writer  estimated  in  lOOl.'^  that  two  tablespoonfuls  of  honey  per 
person  as  a  year's  ration  is  all  that  is  now  consumed,  and  of  this  less 
than  one-fourth  is  produced  in  Massachusetts.  Theoretically  it  is 
possible  for  Massachusetts  to  support  approximateh'  40.000  colonies 
of  bees,  which  could  more  than  equal  in  amount  Hawaii's  honey  crop 
for  last  year.  There  is  reason  to  believe,  however,  that  bee  keeping, 
if  it  is  not  actually  decreasing,  is  not  progressing  along  with  the 
steadih'  increasing  population  of  the  State.  This  is  borne  out  by  the 
general  feeling  among  the  country  people  that  to-da}'  there  are  fewer 
bees  kept  on  the  farms  than  there  were  fifty  3'ears  ago. 

One  of  the  fundamental  reasons  for  this  condition  may  be  found  in 
the  presence  of  brood  diseases  of  bees,  which  exist  in  practically  every 
quarter  of  Massachusetts  and  Connecticut,  as  well  as  in  the  other  Xew 
England  States,  and  which  from  time  to  time  have  doubtless  killed 
out  the  bees  in  many  localities.  There  is  undeniable  proof  of  this; 
furthermore,  from  evidence  of  former  outbreaks  it  must  be  concluded 

« Bee  Keeping :  How  to  Meet  its  Dangers  and  Difficulties.  By  Burton  X. 
(4ates,  with  suggestions  by  Prof.  C.  F.  Hodge.  Fifty-second  Ann.  Rept.  Sec. 
Mass.  St.  Bd.  Agric,  pp.  411-42G,  Boston,  11H>5.  Massachusetts  Crop  Report, 
\o\.  17,  No.  6,  October,  1004,  i»p.  30-40.     Boston,  1004. 

23 


24  MISCELLANEOUS   PAPERS   OX    APR'l  LTURE. 

that  tlicir  iiitrtHiuclioii  is  not  recent.  This  evidence  is  not  merely  the 
result  of  bee  keepers'  reports  or  of  more  or  less  semiauthoritative  and 
indefinite  rumors,  but  it  is  based  upon  results  of  bacteriological  find- 
ings in  numerous  samples  of  brood  comb  sent  to  this  Bureau  by  the 
bee  keepers  in  the  State  during  the  past  year  and  a  half.  Under 
these  conditions  bee  keeping  can  not  be  brought  to  the  high  degree  of 
l)erfection  which  is  possible.  Xo  factor  in  bee  keeping  tends  to  limit 
the  industry  as  do  epidemics  of  such  diseases;  they  cause  bee  keepers 
to  become  discouraged  by  ''  bad  luck  ''  and  to  lose  interest  in  their 
bees.  The  '*  luck  "  must  change ;  the  bee  keejDers  must  learn  the 
nature  of  the  diseases,  where  they  exist,  and  how  to  combat  them; 
otherwise  the  industry  will  decrease  even. more. 

THE  TWO  KNOWN  BEE  DISEASES. 

Two  contagious  brood  diseases  of  bees  are  now  known.  These 
attack  the  developing  brood  and  so  reduce  it  that  the  colony  soon 
dwindles  from  lack  of  young  bees  to  replace  the  old.  They  are 
known,  respectively,  as  American  foul  brood  and  European  foul 
brood. 

AMERICAN   FOUL   BROOD. 

The  cause  of  this  disease  is  definitely  known  to  be  an  organism, 
Bacillus  larvce  White.  It  is  Avhat  has  been  heretofore  frequently 
designated  simply  as  "  foul  brood.'*  The  nature  of  the  disease  is 
described  by  Dr.  E.  F.  Phillips,  in  charge  of  apicultural  investiga- 
tions in  this  Bureau,'^  as  follows  : 

When  the  larv?e  are  first  affected  they  turn  to  a  light  chocolate  color,  and 
in  the  advanced  stages  of  decay  become  darker,  resembling  roasted  coffee  in 
color.  Usually  the  larvje  are  attacked  at  about  the  time  of  capping,  and  most 
of  the  cells  containing  infected  larv.T  are  capped.  As  decay  proceeds  these 
cappings  become  sunken  and  perforated,  and,  as  the  healthy  brood  emerges,  the 
comb  shows  the  scattered  cells  containing  larv;e  which  have  died  of  disease,  still 
capped.  The  most  noticeable  characteristic  of  this  infection  is  the  fact  that 
when  a  small  stick  is  inserted  in  a  larva  which  has  died  of  the  disease,  and 
slowly  removed,  the  broken-down  tissues  adhere  to  it  and  will  often  stretch 
out  for  several  inches  before  breaking.  When  the  larva  dries  it  forms  a 
tightly  adhering  scale  [of  characteristic  and  diagnostic  shape  and]  of  very 
dark  brown  color,  which  can  best  be  observed  when  the  comb  is  held  so  that  a 
bright  light  strikes  the  lower  side  wall  [of  the  celll.  Decaying  larv.T  which 
have  died  of  this  disease  have  a  very  characteristic  odor  which  resembles  a  poor 
<lUMlity  of  glue.     This  disc.-is*'  s«'i(loni  att.icks  drone  or  queen  larva*. 

EUROPEAN     FOl  L    BROOD. 

This  is  the  disease  which  appears  to  be  most  prevalent  in  Massa- 
chusetts, probably  liaving  swept  in  from  New  York  State,  where  it 

«The  l>rood  <liseascs  of  bees.  Hy  K.  F.  Philli|»s.  Ph.  I>.  Circular  T'.K  liureau 
uf  Kntomology.  U.  S.  I>ei»artment  of  Agriculture,  pi).  1-2,  ItKXi. 


BEE   DISEASES   IX    MASSACHUSETTS.  25 

was  formerly  known  as  *'  black  brood.**  Its  presence  is  less  easily 
diagnosed  by  superficial  examination  than  is  American  foul  brood. 
It  is  described  by  Doctor  Phillips"  as  follows: 

This  disease  attacks  larvue  earlier  than  does  American  foul  brood,  and  a 
comparatively  small  percentage  of  the  diseased  brood  is  ever  capi>ed.  The  dis- 
eased larvie  which  are  capped  over  have  sunken  and  perforated  cappings. 
The  larvtp  when  first  attacked  show  a  small  yellow  spot  on  the  body  near  the 
head  and  move  uneasily  in  the  cell.  When  death  occurs  they  turn  yellow, 
then  brown,  and  finally  almost  black.  Decaying  larvae  which  have  died  of  this 
disease  do  not  usually  stretch  out  in  a  long  thread  when  a  small  stick  is 
inserted  and  slowly  removed.  Occasionally  there  is  a  very  slight  "  ropiness,-' 
but  this  is  never  very  marked.  The  thoroughly  dried  larvjie  form  irregular 
scales  which  are  not  strongly  adherent  to  the  lower  side  wall  of  the  cell. 
There  is  very  little  odor  from  decaying  larvae  which  have  died  from  this  dis- 
ease, and  when  an  odor  is  noticeable  it  is  not  the  '*  glue-i>ot "  odor  of  the  Ameri- 
can foul  brood,  but  more  nearly  resembles  that  of  soured  dead  brood.  This  dis- 
ease attacks  drone  and  queen  larvre  very  soon  after  the  colony  is  infected.  It  is 
as  a  rule  much  more  infectious  than  American  foul  brood  and  spreads  more 
rapidly.  On  the  other  hand,  it  sometimes  happens  that  the  disease  will  dis- 
ai^i^ear  of  its  own  accord,  a  thing  which  the  author  never  knew  to  occur  in 
a  genuine  case  of  American  foul  brood.  European  foul  brood  is  most  de- 
structive during  the  spring  and  early  summer,  often  almost  disappearing  in 
late  summer  and  autumn. 

DAMAGE   FROM   BEE  DISEASES. 

The  damage  from  an  epidemic  of  bee  disease  is  as  difficult  to  esti- 
mate as  is  the  damage  from  an  epidemic  of  smallpox,  of  typhoid 
fever,  or  of  malaria  in  a  human  communit}'.  The  loss  of  colonies 
is  but  one  small  item;  there  is  the  resulting  loss  of  crop,  the  result- 
ing lack  of  increase  in  the  number  of  colonies  of  bees,  and  that  demor- 
alizing effect  on  the  industry  which  tends  to  cause  bee  keepers  to  go 
out  of  business.  Besides  this  there  is  a  crippling  of  commercial  queen 
rearing,  a  check  on  the  trade  in  bees,  and  a  decisive  effect  on  the 
manufacture  and  sale  of  bee  keepers'  supplies.  All  these  factors 
must  be  considered  in  an  estimate;  and,  what  is  more,  the  damage  is 
accumulative.  It  can  not  be  calculated  by  the  year  and  then  totaled; 
the  progressive  loss  must  be  figured. 

In  Xew  York  State,  where  European  foul  brood  has  been  com- 
bated for  nearly  a  decade,  and  where  it  is  now  well  suppressed,  it 
has  been  estimated  that  the  damage  from  loss  of  bees  alone,  in  a 
very  limited  area,  in  1899  and  1900,  was  at  least  $45,000. 

In  Ventura  County,  Cal.,  where  American  foul  brood  flourishes,  a 
thriftless  bee  keeper  had  151  colonies  which,  from  neglect,  were  re- 
duced to  14  colonies  in  a  little  over  twelve  months'  time.  One  hun- 
dred and  thirty-seven  colonies  had  died  or  were  nearly  dead.  But 
there  are  many  more  and  even  sadder  cases,  were  there  space  to  relate 
them. 

o  The  brood  diseases  of  bees.    By  E.  F.  Phillips,  Ph.  D.     Circular  79,  Bureau 
of  Entomology,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  p.  2. 
7S013°— Bull.  75—11 a 


2(> 


MISCKLLANKOl'S    PAPKHS    OX    APKTT/n^RK. 


PRESENT   EXTENT   OF   BEE   DISEASES   IN   MASSACHUSETTS. 

T\w  extent  of  bee  diseases  in  Massachusetts  may  be  readily  seen  on 
the  inap.  The  towns  in  which  they  are  positively  known  to  occur 
are  listed  below  in  black-faced  type.  Towns  in  which  they  probably 
exist  are  listed  in  liirhter-faced  type. 

'ruble  sUoiriiKj  the  towns  in  irliic/i  the  hcv  di. sea. s<.s  nsixctircly  occur. 

1  Bluok.-f uced  type   indUiHes  whore  disease  is  positively  l^Down  to  exist.      Light-faced 
type  indicates  that  disease  is  probably  present.] 


American  foul  brood. 

European  foul  brood. 

Bristol  Ctniutj/: 

Worcester  Coiniti/: 

Berkshire  County: 

Hampshire  County: 

Acushnot. 

Hrooit  field. 

tireat  llarriii;^- 

Belchertown. 

I-'rtM'towii. 

Chariton. 

t<»ii. 

Greenwich. 

Now  li.'dford. 

litMMiiiii.stcr. 

I^e. 

Worcester  County: 

Wostport. 

SturbridKO. 

Sandisfield. 

Auburn. 

Esscjr  Count)/: 

Soutbbridf^e. 

Sheffield. 

Bar  re. 

Aniesl)ury. 

Warren. 

Franklin  County: 

Brooltfield. 

Snlislniry. 

Worcester. 

Deerfield. 

Charlton. 

Uumpdcti  CoiDitif: 

(Jreenfield. 

Hard  wick. 

Hrimliold. 

Montague. 

New  Brain  tree. 

lilKlIO^V. 

Northfield. 

Southbridge. 

Monson. 

Haniytlen  Counti): 

Sturbridge. 

Sprin.ij:(iold. 

Blandford. 

Warren. 

Wilbrahara. 

Brimfield. 

Worcester. 

Hampshire  Cnuntu: 

lilllllO^V. 

liolcliortown. 

Monson. 

Mi<l<ll(srx  Vounty: 

Springfield. 

Marlboro. 

Wilbraham. 

The  distribution  of  these  diseases  is  based,  as  is  explained,  on  bac- 
teriological findings  in  numerous  samples  of  suspected  brood,  sub- 
mitted by  the  bee  keepers  during  the  past  year  and  a  half.  The 
examinations  were  made  by  Dr.  G.  Franklin  White,  expert  in  bacte- 
riology, of  this  Bureau.  In  plotting  the  regions  where  disease  is 
thus  definitely  known  to  exist  a  .solid  red  color  has  been  used.  Index 
letters,  A  for  American  foul  brood  and  E  for  European  foul  brood, 
show  which  disease  is  present  in  each  locality. 

Besides  these  definite  data  there  are  in  the  Bureau  of  P^ntomology 
a  great  number  of  reports  from  bee  keepers  throughout  Massachu- 
setts, which,  without  the  definite  knowledge  from  the  bacteriological 
examinations,  would  be  of  .slight  significance  and  importance,  but 
which,  in  conjunction  Avith  these  findings,  are  of  the  greatest  value. 
They  indicate  regions  of  probable  infection,  which  are  shown  on  the 
map  in  lighter  tone. 

As  an  illustration,  a  bee  keeper  who  lives  in  Acushnet  reports,  '"  I 
lost  all  my  bees,  thirty  swarms,  at  once."  This  bare  statement  is  of 
slight  import;  but  taken  together  with  the  fact  that  American  foul 
brood  occurs  in  Freetown,  it  would  indicate  that  American  foul  brood 
is  distributed  throughout  southern  Bristol  (^ounty.  Another  illus- 
tration is  found  in  A^^)rcester  (\)unty.  Bacteriological  examination 
shows  that  in  Auburn  and  Worcester  both  European  foul  brood  and 
American  foul  brood  exist.     A  bee  keeper  from  Barre  reports  that  in 


BEE    DISEASES    IX    MASSACHUSETTS.  27 

the  year  1902  or  1903  he  lost  forty-five  colonies  of  bees.  From  East 
Brookfield  and  Charlton,  from  New  Braintree,  Sturbridge,  and  War- 
ren, all  located  aromid  and  adjoining  Worcester  and  Auburn,  reports 
of  hea\n^  loss  of  bees,  not  alone  by  one  bee  keeper  in  a  town  but  by 
several,  are  at  hand.     A  bee  keeper  in  Warren  says,  "  Bees  all  died 

about  five  years  ago;  I  had  nine  colonies  which  I  lost;  Mr. lost 

about  five  colonies  also,  as  did  others,  so  that  at  the  present  day  only 
three  to  four  colonies  remain  in  town.*'  Similar  reports  come  from 
across  the  county  and  Connecticut  State  lines  adjoining  this  section 
of  Worcester  County.  It  is  highly  probable,  then,  considering  the 
positive  knowledge  of  foul  brood  in  Worcester  and  Auburn  and  con- 
sidering collectively  the  widespread  and  yet  individual  reports  from 
the  country  about  these  two  towns,  that  these  diseases  are  present 
throughout  this  section  of  Massachusetts  and  Connecticut.  In  other 
parts  of  the  State  similar  conclusions  are  obvious. 

Considering  the  distribution  as  a  Avhole,  it  is  apparent  that  Euro- 
pean foul  brood  has  swept  in  from  Xew  York  State,  where  the 
disease  has  existed  for  years.  Moreover,  were  the  bees  in  western 
Massachusetts  systematically  examined,  this  portion  of  the  State 
would  doubtless  be  found  thickly  infected  with  European  foul  brood. 
American  foul  brood  in  Connecticut  has  apparenth^  invaded  Litch- 
field County  in  the  western  half  of  the  State.  In  ^lassachusetts, 
on  the  other  hand,  and  in  one  small  area  in  Xew  Hampshire,  where 
there  is  less  thorough  information,  American  foul  brood  is  largely 
confined  to  the  eastern  half  of  the  State.  Ultimately,  when  more 
information  is  at  hand,  if  decisive  and  immediate  steps  to  suppress 
these  diseases  are  not  taken,  Massachusetts,  as  well  as  the  rest  of  Xew 
England,  will  undoubtedly  reveal  a  mass  of  infection. 

EVIDENCE    THAT    BEE    DISEASES    WERE    NOT    RECENTLY    INTRO- 
DUCED  INTO   MASSACHUSETTS. 

In  1828  Dr.  James  Thatcher  wrote  (p.  4:)  :« 

The  destructive  ravages  of  the  bee-motli  have  in  many  places  almost  auui- 
hilated  our  bee  establishments  and  discouraged  all  attempts  to  renewed  trials. 
No  less  than  a  hundred  hives  have,  the  past  season,  been  eutirelj'  destroyed 
by  that  enemy  within  the  towns  of  the  county  of  Plymouth,  and  in  places 
where  a  single  hive  has  yielded  one  hundred  pounds  of  honey. 

At  first  reading  this  might  appear,  so  far  as  bee  diseases  are  con- 
cerned, of  slight  import.  General  experience  shows,  however,  that 
strong,  healthy  colonies  of  bees  are  seldom  if  ever  destroyed  by 
wax  moths,  the  presence  of  the  latter  being  secondary  as  a  result  of 
a  weakened  condition  of  the  colony  from  loss  of  its  queen,  disease, 
or  the  like.  Consequently,  wherever  there  is  extensive  complaint  of 
damage  from  moths,  there  the  presence  of  disease  is  to  be  suspected. 

« A  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Management  of  Bees.  *  *  *  By  James 
Thacher,  M.  D.,  Boston,  1820. 


28  MISCELLANEOUS   PAPERS   ON    APICULTURE. 

In  1831,  again.  Dr.  Jerome  V.  C.  Smith"  says  (p.  41)  : 

(iront  InnuMitations  are  heard  about  the  bee-moth,  ♦  *  *  whose  devasta- 
tions in  the  New  KiiKhmd  States  hav«'  been  described  as  something  frightful. 

More  specifically  he  says  (p.  43)  : 

In  tlie  interior  of  Ma ssju-liu setts.  New  Hampshire,  and  Connecticut  the 
farmers  liave  l>ecome  lieartily  discoiira^'ed  in  tlieir  attempts  at  cultivation,  and 
lamentably  appear  to  have  abandoned  them  entirely. 

Such  reports  strongly  suggest  that  some  unknown  agent,  as  dis- 
ease, depleted  the  bees  and  made  them  subjects  for  the  devastations 
of  bee  moths.  Even  at  that  early  date  Doctor  Smith  intimates 
(j).  41)  that  all  the  damage  ''attributed  to  it  [the  bee  mothl  .  .  . 
admits  of  some  doubt.*'  Without  being  conclusive,  such  evidence 
must  be  accepted  as  strongly  indicative  of  the  existence  of  disease, 
probably  of  American  foul  brood,  in  Massachusetts. 

About  181)(')  the  writer  saw  in  Worcester  a  hive  in  which  the  bees 
had  died  from  some  affection  of  the  brood.  It  was  diagnosed  then 
as  a  disease  which  is  now  designated  as  American  foul  brood.  Only 
one  hive  out  of  several  was  affected. 

European  foid  brood,  on  the  other  hand,  is  of  more  recent  intro- 
duction in  the  State.  It  was  first  recognized  in  New  York  State  in 
1895,  where  it  is  thought  to  have  been  introduced  in  importations  of 
bees  from  the  south.  As  the  map  shows,  this  disease  has  probably 
spread  into  ^lassachusetts  from  Xew  York. 

The  late  ilr.  James  F.  Wood,  of  North  Dana,  noticed  in  the  Con- 
necticut and  Swift  River  valleys  of  Massachusetts  a  brood  disease 
of  bees  which  nuide  its  appearance  in  that  regicm  about  1901.  It 
did  much  damage,  destroying  all  the  bees  in  the  3'ards  where  it 
appeared;  but,  as  it  was  apparently  not  American  foul  brood,  Mr. 
Wood  i-egarded  it  as  a  new  disease.  From  a  description  made  in  an 
address  before  the  Worcester  County  Bee  Keepers'  Association  by 
Dr.  James  B.  Paige,^  of  Massachusetts  Agricultural  College,  who 
was  closely  associated  with  ^Ir.  Wood  and  who  made  a  study  of 
the  disease,  it  w^ould  appear  to  have  been  European  foul  brood. 
Being  first  observed  in  Massachusetts  in  1901,  it  would  have  had 
ample  time  to  have  spread  from  Xew  York  State. 

With  so  little  recorded  data,  it  is  difficult  to  draw  positive  con- 
clusions regarding  the  distribution  of  these  diseases  in  j^ears  gone 
by.  It  is  far  more  important,  however,  to  realize  that  they  have 
existed  in  the  State  for  a  considerable  time,  that  they  have  been 
and  are  a  decided  check  on  the  progress  of  bee  keeping,  but  that 
they  can  now  be  counteracted. 

"An  Essiiy  on  the  PracticabllUy  of  Cultivation  of  tlu'  Honey  bee     *     *     ♦. 
Uy  .Jerome  V.  (\  Smith.  M.  I).,  lioston.  ls;n. 
^Wood's  Bee  Disease.    American  Hee  Keei)er,  Vol.  1(>,  pp.  ('»!►  7u,  V.)OG, 


BEE   DISEASES  IN    MASSACHUSETTS.  29 

THE  SPREAD  OF  BEE  DISEASES. 

Both  types  of  foul  brood  are  highly  infectious;  the  way  in  which 
they  are  spread  might  be  compared  to  the  spread  of  typhoid  fever  in 
human  communities.  Honey  is  the  common  carrier  of  this  infection, 
just  as  milk  and  water  are  the  agents  which  frequently  spread  typhoid 
fever. 

In  diseased  colonies  of  bees,  practically  every  part  of  the  hive 
becomes  contaminated  with  the  germs  of  the  disease.  Consequenth^, 
when  disease  is  found  in  the  bee  yard,  every  precaution  must  be 
taken  that  bees  from  healthy  colonies  do  not  come  in  contact  with 
any  part  of  the  diseased  colonies  or  hives.  Honey,  being  so  irre- 
sistible to  the  bees,  is  of  course  the  main  thing  to  be  guarded.  Since 
diseased  colonies  soon  become  weakened,  from  the  lack  of  young  bees 
to  replace  those  dying  from  old  age,  they  are  less  likely  to  maintain 
guard  against  robbers,  which  are  a  great  source  of  danger  in  the 
spread  of  infection.  Immediately  on  discovery,  diseased  colonies 
should  be  treated. 

FEEDING  HONEY. 

In  these  days  of  widespread  bee  disease  it  is  dangerous  to  feed 
any  honey  to  bees;  it  is  far  preferable  and  less  dangerous  to  supply 
them,  if  they  need  stores,  with  a  sirup  of  sugar  and  water,  half  and 
half.  It  is  safe  to  feed  honey  to  bees  only  when  it  has  been  vigorously 
boiled  for  at  least  a  half  hour,  and,  as  Doctor  Phillips  has  recently 
stated,*^  in  order  to  avoid  risk,  ""  it  is  better  to  make  this  an  hour  " 
(p.  12).  In  boiling,  the  honey  should  always  be  diluted  with  equal 
parts  of  water  in  order  to  prevent  scorching. 

DISINFECTION    OF  TOOLS   AND   HANDS. 

All  tools  used  in  manipulating  diseased  bees,  as  well  as  the  oper- 
ator's hands,  should  be  thoroughly  disinfected  before  opening  a 
healthy  colony. 

DEPLETED  HIVES  FROM   GREENHOUSES  A   SOURCE  OF  DANGER. 

In  Massachusetts  particularly  there  is  another  source  of  infection 
which  is  difficult  of  control.  Each  year  several  hundred  colonies 
of  bees  are  placed  in  greenhouses  by  those  who  grow  cucumbers  under 
glass.  In  the  adverse  conditions  of  the  cucumber  house  the  hive 
soon  becomes  depleted  and  is  promptly  thrown  on  the  rubbish  pile. 
If  the  hive  originally  came  from  a  foul-brood  region — which  is  not 

^  The  production  and  care  of  extracted  honey.  By  E.  F.  Phillips,  Ph.  D. 
Bui.  75,  Pt.  I,  Bur.  Ent.,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agric,  1907.  Price  5c,  from  Superin- 
tendent of  Documents,  Washington,  D.  C. 


oO  MISCELLANEOUS   PAPERS   ON    APICULTURK. 

iniproha'ble,  inasmuch  as  the  cfroonhouse  men  buy  tlioir  bees  wherever 
Ihev  can  get  them — all  the  hees  within  a  radius  of  several  miles  of 
the  rubbish  pile  ai'c  exposed.  More  than  once  the  writer  has  seen 
fi-om  two  to  a  half  dozen  such  hives  cast  out  on  the  rubbish  heap. 
\Miile  there  is  no  intention  of  en(lan<i^erin<^  nei<2:hb()rs'  bees,  it  is  as 
criminal  to  throw  out  of  doors  any  hive  in  Avhich  bees  have  died  as 
it  is  to  shake  the  l)ed(lin<j:  or  throw  the  waste  of  the  sick  room  from 
the  window.  Discarded  hives  and  their  contents,  if  the  cucumber 
<i:r()wer  does  not  wi^h  to  render  the  Avax,  should  be  thrown  under  the 
hoiler. 

PURCHASING  BEES  AND  QUEENS. 

In  purchasing  bees  the  buyer  should  be  as  certain  that  he  is  getting 
stock  free  from  disease  as  is  the  farmer,  who  purchases  cows,  that 
these  have  no  tuberculosis.  A  region  where  the  disease  is  not  found 
or  where  it  has  been  successfully  suppressed  can  be  reinfected  by 
one  careless  purchase.  For  instance,  speaking  of  New  York  State, 
Mr.  Charles  Stewart  says :  ° 

Just  as  we  [the  inspectors]  were  feeling  that  we  had  nearly  stamped  it  [the 
disease]  out  and  wore  masters  of  the  situation  we  discovered  that  at  least  one 
if  not  two  fresh  importations  had  been  made  in  a  section  of  the  State  where 
no  trouble  of  this  kind  [European  foul  brood]  formerly  existed  (p.  55). 

To  some  degree  this  applies  to  purchasing  queen  bees.  It  is  usually 
safe,  however,  to  introduce  a  queen  if  she  is  removed  from  the  cage 
in  which  she  is  mailed  and  is  introduced  unaccompanied  by  her  escort 
of  workers.  The  candy  which  is  shipped  with  queens  should  never  be 
put  into  a  hive. 

STRAY   BEES. 

There  is  one  agent  over  wdiich  the  bee  keeper  has  no  control  and 
which  should  cause  him  no  anxiety  if  a  considerable  territorj^  is 
freed  of  the  diseases.  It  is  a  w  ell-known  fact  that  under  certain  con- 
ditions, as,  for  instance,  in  storms  and  heavy  Avinds,  bees  enter  hives 
other  than  their  own.  Obviously,  then,  such  bees  in  their  interchange 
of  hives  may  spread  the  infection.  This  only  emphasizes  the  urgency 
of  cleaning  the  disease  out  of  a  whole  State,  or,  better,  out  of  a  block 
of  States,  as  New  England.     Cooperation  is  the  key  to  the  situation. 

BROOD   DISEASES   CAN   BE   CONTROLLED. 

Enumeration  of  the  methods  by  which  disease  is  spread  should 
not  convey  the  idea  that  these  diseases  can  not  be  combated,  for  it 
has  been  thoroughly  demonstrated  that  by  judicious  and  persistent 
manipulation  both  of  them  can  be  successfully  controlled  and  sup- 

"  Kep<»rt  of  the  Meetinj:  of  the  Inspectors  of  Apiaries.  San  Antonio,  Tex., 
November  12,  IJMHJ.     liul.  H),  liur.  Ent.,  V.  S.  Dept.  Af?rie.,  1007. 


BEE   DISEASES   IX    MASSACHUSETTS.  31 

pressed.  The  rapidity  with  which  they  spread,  however,  makes  co- 
operation of  bee  keepers  throughout  the  State  or  States  essential. 
Sixteen  States  and  Territories"  now  have  legislation  and  inspectors 
designed  to  protect  the  bee  keepers  from  the  spread  of  these  infectious 
diseases.  The  State  nearest  to  Massachusetts  is  Xew  York,  where 
the  annual  loss  of  bees  alone  is  shown  in  the  following  figures :  ^ 

Previous  to  1S99,  in  a  limited  area,  the  loss  of  bees  aloue  is  estimated 

at $39,383 

In  1899,  when  concentrated  effort  to  suppress  bee  disease  was  begun, 

it  amounted  to 25,420 

In  1900 20,  289 

In  1902 10,  853 

In  1903  the  loss  of  the  previous  year  was  halved,  making  it 5,  860 

In  1903  it  was 4,  741 

In  1904  it  was  again  divided  by  two,  being 2,220 

In  1905  there  was  again  a  reduction  of  nearly  50  per  cent 1,  725 

Total  loss  of  bees,  covering  about  ten  years 110,491 

In  other  States  the  encouraging  results  of  inspection  and  per- 
sistent effort  to  suppress  the  inroads  of  disease  are  similar. 

IXSPECTIOX. 

Inspectors  are  not  alone  police  officers.  They  are  educators,  up-to- 
date  bee  keepers  giving  instructions  in  modern  methods  of  bee  keep- 
ing, thoroughly  experienced  in  treating  foul  brood,  and  a  great  stim- 
ulus to  progress.  They  are  necessarily  exacting  and  thorough;  but 
they  are  not  out  to  seize  and  condemn:  their  aim  is  to  help  the  bee 
keepers,  to  assist  them  in  a  cooperative  etl'ort  to  eradicate  disease,  and 
to  promote  bee  keeping.  Of  course  the  individual  can  do  much  for 
himself  by  keeping  his  own  yard  clean  and  free  from  infection :  but 
he  is  in  constant  danger  of  reinfection  from  his  neighbors,  if  they 
fail  to  cooperate  with  him. 

A  BRIEF  ACCOUNT  OF  TREATMENT   FOR  BROOD  DISEASES. 

Those  who  are  most  experienced  in  the  suppression  of  brood  dis- 
eases are  agreed  that  "  shaking,"^  which  is  practically  "  shook  swarm- 
ing," and  modifications  of  this  process  are  the  only  successful  methods. 

°  The  legislation  empowering  this  inspection  in  twelve  of  these  States  and  Ter- 
ritories is  reprinted  from  Bui.  61,  Bur.  Ent.,  issued  November  5,  1906,  and  en- 
titled "  The  Laws  in  Force  Against  Injurious  Insects  and  Foul  Brood  in  the 
United  States,"  compiled  by  L.  O.  Howard  and  A.  F.  Burgess. 

^  These  figures  are  afforded  by  a  compilation  made  in  1905  by  Mr.  Charles 
Stewart  from  the  records  of  the  commissioner  of  agriculture  of  New  York 
State. 

<^  The  various  treatments  are  described  by  Dr.  E.  F.  Phillips  in  Circular  79, 
of  this  Bureau,  mentioned  above. 


32  MISCELLANEOUS   PAPERS   OX   APICULTURE. 

SirAKlN(J. 

Shakine:  is  briefly  this:  As  soon  as  a  colony  is  discovered  dis- 
eased, and  at  a  time  when  there  would  be  no  robbing,  it  is  shaken  on 
the  old  stand  into  a  hive  containing  new  frames  with  narrow^  strips 
of  foundation.  Tn  this  way  none  of  the  contaminated  honey  is  de- 
posited in  the  new  cells.  Should  the  disease  reappear,  which  is  some- 
times the  case,  the  operation  must  be  repeated.  In  order  to  prevent 
the  bees  from  swarming  out,  the  queen  may  be  caged  in  the  hive  for 
a  few  days  or  the  entrance  closed  with  a  piece  of  queen-excluding 
zinc.  Care  should  be  taken  not  to  scatter  parts  of  the  contaminated 
hive,  particularly  the  honey,  where  bees  can  get  at  them. 

DISINFECTION   OF  HIVE  MATERIALS. 

Honey,  unless  it  has  been  boiled  as  above  described,  should  never 
be  fed  back  to  bees.  Wax,  however,  after  being  rendered  and  manu- 
factured into  foundation,  is  commonly  used  without  apparent  dan- 
ger. It  is  customary  in  the  East  to  put  bees  back  into  hives  which 
have  formerly  contained  diseased  colonies,  after  they  have  been 
thoroughly  cleaned  of  all  bits  of  wax  and  honey.  In  the  West,  how-, 
ever,  the  hives  are  either  burned  out  with  oil,  with  a  blue-flamed 
torch,  or  are  disinfected  with  strong  chemical  disinfectants.  All 
frames  should  be  burned,  since  it  does  not  pay  to  clean  them. 


U.  S.  D.  A.,  B.  E.  Bui.  75,  Part  IV.  A.,  December  26,  1908. 

MISCELLANEOUS  PAPERS  ON  APICULTURE. 


THE   RELATION  OF    THE   ETIOLOGY  (CAUSE)  OF   BEE  DISEASES 
TO  THE  TREATMENT.'^ 

By  G.  F.  White,  Ph.  D., 
Expert  in  Bacteriology. 

INTRODUCTION. 

Bee  keeping  is  not  an  industry  which  brings  a  fortune  to  a  few,  but 
is  one  the  profits  of  which  add  comfort  to  700.000  homes  in  Amer- 
ica, This  industry,  which  is  a  pleasure  and  a  profit  to  so  many,  is 
beset  with  difficulties.  One  of  the  greatest  obstacles  encountered 
in  the  successful  pursuit  of  bee  keeping  is  disease.  There  are  a  num- 
ber of  diseases  which  attack  the  honey  bee.  Those  which  cause  the 
greatest  loss  attack  the  brood.  These  diseases  are  known  to  the  bee 
keejDer  as  American  foul  brood.  European  foul  brood,  and  pickled 
brood.  Considerable  loss  is  sustained  also  from  paralysis  and  dys- 
entery. Other  disorders  of  less  importance  are  sometimes  encoun- 
tered. If  the  apiarist  is  to  treat  these  diseases  effectively,  he  should 
become  as  familiar  as  possible  with  their  etiology.  Therefore  this 
opportunity  has  been  chosen  to  discuss  the  causes  of  bee  diseases,  as 
far  as  the}^  are  known,  and  to  emphasize  the  importance  of  such 
knowledge  in  the  treatment. 

The  word  '*  disease  '•  is  made  up  of  two  parts,  "  dis,"  referring  to 
a  negative  condition,  and  "  ease."  meaning  a  state  of  rest.  By  com- 
bining the  parts  we  have  the  very  appropriate  word  meaning  a  nega- 
tiA'e  state  of  rest.  We  are  all  familiar  with  health,  which  is  the 
state  of  rest.  It  is  the  condition  which  we  experience  when  all  the 
organs  of  the  body  are,  so  to  speak,  in  a  state  of  equilibrium.  Any 
departure  from  this  state  of  health  is  disease.  You  should  remember 
that  disease  is  alike  in  nature  in  all  the  animal  kingdom  and  differs 
only  in  kind. 

To  understand  best  the  nature  of  disease  we  must  study  the  causes 
of  disease.  A  number  of  factors  may  combine  and  be  responsible 
for  a  diseased  condition.  This  group  of  factors  is  known  as  the 
'•  etiology."  Etiology,  then,  means  the  causation  of  disease.  Let  us 
further  consider  the  etiology  of  disease  and  use  bee  diseases  largely 
as  illustrations. 

"Read  at  the  meeting  of  the  National  Bee-Keepers'  Association,  Detroit, 
Mich.,  October  14,  1908. 

33 


34  MISCELLANEOUS   PAPERS   OX    APTCI^LTURE. 

ETIOLOGY  (CAUSE)  OF  DISEASES. 

Every  abnormal  coiulition  in  the  body  of  an  animal  which  we 
know  as  disease  has  a  cause  which  has  brought  about  such  a  condi- 
tion. In  niost  of  the  diseases  of  man  and  the  higher  animals  compar- 
atively little  is  known  of  the  cause.  Likewise,  and  unfortunately, 
the  same  is  true  of  bee  diseases.  Gradually  but  slowly  new  facts 
about  all  diseases  are  added  to  our  knowledge,  the  unfortunate  thing 
being  that  so  many  statements  are  reported  as  facts  which  have  never 
been  demonstrated  to  be  true. 

In  the  study  of  the  etiology  of  a  disease  and  in  the  discussion  of  it, 
it  is  convenient  to  divide  the  causal  factors  into  predisposing  and 
exciting.  Under  the  predisposing  causes  which  may  be  considered 
as  factors  in  bee  diseases  we  have  age,  sex,  race,  heredity,  climate, 
and  preexisting  disease.  Under  the  exciting  causes  we  may  consider 
food  and  micro-organisms. 

To  illustrate,  let  us  consider  the  different  factors  just  mentioned. 

PREDISPOSING    CAUSES. 

Age. 

In  our  experience  with  human  diseases  we  have  learned  to  expect 
scarlet  fever,  measles,  mumps,  and  whooping  cough  more  often  in 
children  than  in  adults;  typhoid  fever  and  appendicitis  in  young 
adults;  and  cancer  in  those  more  advanced  in  life.  In  bee  diseases 
we  expect  European  foul  brood  to  attack  larva?  that  are  j^ounger 
than  those  which  suffer  from  American  foul  brood.  "We  expect  the 
so-called  "  pickled  brood  "  to  die  just  before  or  after  capping,  while 
paralysis  is,  as  far  as  we  knoAv,  a  disease  of  adult  life. 

Sex. 

Of  some  importance  in  the  etiologj^  of  human  diseases  is  the  factor 
sex.  Inflammatory  rheumatism,  gout,  and  diabetes,  for  example, 
occur  more  frequently  in  men,  while  goiter  and  hysteria  are  more 
frequent  in  women.  In  bee  diseases  we  expect  in  American  foul 
brood  to  find  the  worker  larva?  more  often  attacked  than  the  drone, 
while  in  European  foul  brood  this  difference,  if  it  exists,  does  so 
only  to  a  slight  degree. 

Heredity. 

You  are  all  familiar  with  the  fact  that  heredity  is  considered  as 
an  important  predisposing  factor  in  tuberculosis,  cancer,  gout,  in- 
sanity, etc.  It  is  interesting  that  in  the  so-called  ''pickled  brood" 
there  is  some  evidence  which  indicates  that  heredity  plays  an  im- 
portant role. 


RELATION    OF   ETIOLOGY   OF    BEE    DISEASES   TO    TREATMENT.       85 

Race. 

Eacial  immunity  is  a  rather  interesting  factor  in  the  study  of 
human  and  animal  diseases.  The  negro,  for  example,  seems  to  pos- 
sess considerable  immunity  in  gout  and  diabetes  compared  with  the 
white  race.  Sheep  ordinarily  are  very  susceptible  to  anthrax,  but 
there  is  an  Algerian  race  of  sheep  which  is  immune  to  this  disease. 
Some  bee  keepers  believe  that  race  is  an  important  factor  in  bee 
diseases,  but  comparatively  little  is  definitely  known  on  this  phase 

of  the  etiology. 

Climate. 

That  human  diseases  are  more  frequent  in  some  climates  than  in 
others  is  a  fact  familiar  to  us  all:  that  climatic  conditions  play  a 
part  in  bee  diseases  seems  to  be  quite  probable. 

Preexisting  Disease. 

Preexisting  disease  has  very  little,  if  anything,  to  do  with  bee  dis- 
eases. By  preexisting  disease  we  mean  that  when  an  individual 
passes  through  an  attack  of  a  disease  the  disease  predisposes  that  indi- 
vidual to  other  diseases.  This  is  illustrated  in  various  human  and 
animal  diseases.  In  bee  diseases  we  do  not  know  whether  any  larva 
or  pupa  ever  recovers  sufficiently  from  an  attack  of  disease  to  con- 
tinue its  development  and  emerge  as  an  adult  bee.  Many  bee  keepers 
think  that  adult  bees  in  American  foul-brood  colonies  are  less  active 
than  in  normal  colonies.  Whether  or  not  they  suffer  from  disease  we 
do  not  know.  It  is  possible,  but  not  so  probable,  that  they  have  suf- 
fered a  light  attack  of  disease  while  in  the  developmental  stage  and 
emerged  as  adult  bees  with  weakened  organs  which  do  not  perform  a 
normal  function.  If  this  were  true,  it  would  illustrate  the  impor- 
tance of  preexisting  disease  as  a  predisposing  factor  in  etiology. 

Having  thus  briefly  considered  some  of  the  more  important  pre- 
disposing causes  which  enter  into  the  etiology  of  bee  diseases,  let  us 
consider  two  of  the  more  important  exciting  causes — food  and  micro- 
organisms. 

EXCITING    CAUSES. 

Food. 

The  character  of  food  is  believed  by  many  bee  keepers  to  be  an  ex- 
citing factor  in  dysentery.  Should  the  food  contain  poisons,  grave 
results  might  follow.  Some  attribute  paralysis  to  the  character  of 
the  food,  but  this  is  far  from  a  demonstrated  fact. 

Micro-organisms. 

By  micro-organisms  we  mean  those  living  plants  and  animals  which 
are  very  small  and  must  be  magnified  greatly  before  they  can  be  seen. 
Those  which  are  to  receive  our  attention  are  bacteria,  protozoa,  and 
fungi. 


36  MISCELLANEOUS   PAPERS  ON    APICULTI^RE. 

lUictcria. — We  havo  now  come  to  the  consideiatioii  of  that  factor 
in  the  etiology  of  bee  diseases  which  is  most  important  and  with 
which  we  woukl  have  the  bee  keepers  become  familiar.  The  annual 
loss  sustained  by  the  bee  keepers  of  this  country  due  to  the  one  cause, 
bacteria,  is  to  be  reckoned  in  millions.  It  is  unfortunate  that  it  is 
necessary  to  use  the  word  bacteria,  because  too  many  at  once  think 
that  they  are  not  able  to  understand  anything  about  bacteria.  This 
is  a  mistaken  idea.  It  is  not  dillicult  to  understand  the  facts  about 
them  which  are  most  important  in  the  treatment  of  disease.  It  might 
be  well  to  review  here  some  of  the  things  known  concerning  their  life 
history. 

Nearly  two  years  ago  the  writer  had  the  honor  of  reading  a  paper 
at  a  meeting  of  bee  inspectors  held  at  San  Antonio,  Tex.,  upon  the 
subject  of  the  bacteriology  of  bee  diseases.  This  paper  appears  in 
Bulletin  No.  70  of  the  Bureau  of  Entomology  of  the  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture,  page  10.  In  it  are  discussed  briefly  the 
nature  of  bacteria,  their  distribution,  the  methods  of  studying  them, 
and  the  results  of  their  activity.  It  is  stated  that  bacteria — often 
called  germs,  microbes,  and  parasites — are  very  small  plants;  so 
small,  indeed,  that  12,000  placed  end  to  end  measure  but  1  inch.  They 
increase  in  number  Avith  marvelous  rapidity.  Under  favorable  condi- 
tions each  bacterium  in  twenty  minutes  becomes  two.  At  this  rate 
countless  millions  are  formed  in  twenty-four  hours.  As  the  soil  be- 
comes exhausted  in  which  the}'  are  growing  many  species  form  spores 
which  are  in  a  way  comparable  to  the  seeds  of  higher  plants.  These 
spores  are  very  difficult  to  destroy  by  heat  and  other  disinfectants. 
It  is  well  to  remember,  concerning  the  distribution  of  bacteria,  that 
they  are  found  in  very  large  numbers  everywhere  about  us,  but  that 
most  of  them  are  as  harmless  as  the  A^egetables  we  eat.  But  should 
there  be  introduced  into  an  apiary,  for  example,  the  species  of  bacteria 
which  causes  American  foul  brood,  then  the  brood  becomes  exposed 
to  the  disease  and  will  probably  contract  it. 

The  study  of  bacteria  must  be  carried  on  for  the  most  part  in  the 
laboratory.  By  the  use  of  the  microscope  we  are  able  to  tell  the 
genus  (e.  g..  Bacillus)  to  which  an  organism  belongs,  and  by  specially 
prepared  media,  or  soils,  we  are  able  to  determine  the  species  to  which 
it  belongs  (e.  g.,  alrei). 

Having  determined  these  things  about  bacteria,  we  are  interested  in 
finding  out  what  they  are  capable  of  doing.  We  learn  that  some  do 
good,  as,  for  example,  in  bringing  to  decay  the  remains  of  dead  ani- 
mals and  ])lants,  while  other  species  do  harm  by  their  ability  to  pro- 
duce disease  or  death  in  the  animals  in  which  they  are  able  to  gain 
entrance.  The  disease  American  foul  brood,  which  causes  the  great- 
est loss  to  the  l)('e-k(>eping   industry,  has  been   demonstrated   to  be 


KELATION    OF    ETIOLOGY    OF    BEE    DISEASES    TO    TREATMENT.       37 

caused  by  bacteria.  Above  all,  you  should  understand  that  the  death 
of  the  brood  is  due  to  one  species  of  bacteria  growing  in  the  larvae. 

Protozoa. — In  contrast  to  bacteria,  the  protozoa  belong  to  the  ani- 
mal kingdom.  They  are  very  small  unicellular  animals.  Many 
species  are  harmless,  as  are  many  species  of  bacteria,  while  some 
species  have  the  power  to  produce  disease.  They  produce  disease 
and  death  in  a  manner  very  similar  to  bacteria ;  that  is,  by  growing 
in  the  body  of  a  living  animal.  As  far  as  we  know,  none  of  the  bee 
diseases  is  due  to  protozoa.  One  investigator  described  what  he 
thought  was  a  protozoon  and  named  it  Spirochceta  apis.  It  was 
shown  that  he  made  an  error  in  his  observations.  Therefore  there  is 
no  Spirochceta  apis  and  no  protozoon,  as  far  as  we  know,  which  is 
pathogenic  to  bees. 

Fimgi. — The  term  "  fungi "  is  a  rather  broad  one,  but  in  the  dis- 
eases of  animals  we  usually  refer,  in  speaking  of  fungi,  to  those 
forms  of  plant  life  which  are  higher  than  bacteria.  They  are  usually 
made  up  of  branching  mycelial  threads,  and  have  a  variety  of  meth- 
ods for  producing  spores.  One  writer  described  one  species,  Aspergil- 
lus poUini,  which  he  was  supposed  to  haA^e  proved  to  be  the  cause  of 
pickled  brood,  but  he  had  not  done  so. 

To  the  above  groups  belong  the  known  exciting  causes.  There  are 
also  unknown  exciting  causes.  ^Alien  the  unknown  causes  become 
known  they  may  be  found  to  belong  to  the  groups  mentioned  above. 

There  is  a  very  important  classification  of  diseases  into  those  which 
are  infectious  and  those  which  are  noninfectious.  From  what  has 
been  said,  this  classification  becomes  clear  to  us.  An  infectious  bee 
disease  is  one  which  may  be  transmitted  from  one  colony  to  another 
through  the  natural  processes  in  the  apiary.  American  foul  brood 
and  European  foul  brood  are  examples  of  this  class  of  disease.  ^Yhat 
is  transmitted  in  an  infectious  disease  ?  It  is  the  exciting  cause  of  that 
disease.  In  American  foul  brood  it  is  one  species  of  bacteria.  Bacillus 
larvce.  In  European  foul  brood  we  do  not  know  what  is  transmitted. 
Since  we  do  not  know  the  exciting  cause  it  must  be  classed  under  the 
unknown  exciting  causes.  'VMien  the  cause  is  determined  it  will  prob- 
ably be  found  to  belong  to  one  of  the  three  groups  of  micro-organisms 
mentioned  under  the  known  causes.  A  noninfectious  disease  is  one 
which  is  not  transmitted  from  one  colony  to  another.  The  so-called 
"  pickled  brood  "  and  paralysis,  as  far  as  we  know,  illustrate  this  class 
of  diseases. 

This  brief  discussion  of  the  etiology  of  disease  is  given  in  order 
that  you  may  get  a  clearer  idea  of  the  nature  of  disease  and  what  is 
meant  by  etiology.  We  shall  now  consider  the  treatment  of  disease 
and  illustrate  with  bee  diseases. 


38  MISCELLANEOUS   PAPERS   OX    APRl'LTURE. 

TREATMENT    OF   DISEASE. 

T\w  ultinialo  ()l)joct  in  the  iiivostigalion  of  diseases  is  the  successful 
treatment  of  iheni.  Before  a  disease  can  be  treated  rationally  the 
diaofnosis  must  be  made;  in  other  words,  it  must  be  determined  what 
disease  is  present.  If,  for  example,  the  so-called  "  pickled  brood  "  is 
present  in  an  apiary,  the  treatment  will  be  cpiite  different  from  what 
it  would  be  if  American  foul  brood  or  P^uropean  foul  brood  were 
present;  and  if  no  disease  is  present,  as  sometimes  happens,  and  the 
bee  keeper  suspects  a  disease,  it  is  important  that  a  positive  diagnosis 
be  made  of  this  condition. 

There  is  no  method  by  which  bee  disease  can  be  so  positively  diag- 
nosed as  by  the  finding  of  the  exciting  cause  in  the  affected  and  dead 
bees.  This  fact  is  made  use  of  in  diagnosing  samples  of  brood  sent  to 
the  laboratory  and  illustrates  one  important  advantage  in  knowing 
the  etiology  of  disease.  If  we. are  to  devise  methods  for  treatment  it 
is  important  that  we  should  know  where  the  exciting  cause  exists, 
under  what  conditions  it  grows,  how  it  is  carried  from  one  place  to 
another,  and  how  it  may  be  destroyed.  These  facts  are  determined  by 
a  study  of  the  etiology  of  the  disease,  and  it  is  upon  such  facts  that 
we  should  base  the  treatment. 

Those  who  are  familiar  Avith  bee  diseases  are  also  familiar  with 
the  different  methods  of  treatment.  It  is  not  the  purpose  of  the 
writer  to  discuss  any  of  the  classical  methods,  but  to  suggest  a  few  of 
the  principles  upon  which  such  methods  must  be  based  if  the}^  are  to 
be  most  effective.     Treatment  is  both  preventive  and  curative. 

PREVENTIVE    TREATMENT. 

Too  many  believe  that  the  treatment  of  bee  diseases  consists  in  the 
control  or  eradication  of  a  disease  after  it  is  found  in  the  apiary. 
This  is  only  the  minor  part  of  treatment — the  curative.  The  treat- 
ment which  is  of  major  importance  is  the  preventive  treatment.  Pre- 
vention is  much  easier  than  cure.  To  prevent  disease  in  the  apiary 
is  to  keep  it  out.  To  keep  it  out  is  to  keep  out  the  exciting  cause.  In 
order  to  keep  out  the  exciting  cause,  it  is  desirable  to  know  its  dis- 
tribution or  where  it  is  found.  In  American  foul  brood  the  exciting 
cause,  Barillvs  larva',  is  found  in  innnense  numbers  in  the  bodies  of 
diseased  and  dead  larviv.  These  dead  larva\  for  the  most  part,  are 
allowed  by  the  bees  to  remain  in  the  brood  cell  as  a  scale.  The  honey 
also  has  been  demonstrated  to  contain  the  bacteria  which  produce  this 
disease.  The  i)()llen  may  be  contaminated  with  the  spores  of  this 
disease-producing  organism.  The  combs  from  an  apiary  affected 
with  American  foul  l)ro()(l  are  a  fruitful  source  of  infection.  The 
inside  of  the  hives  which  have  contained  colonies  suffering  with 
American  foul  brood   may  l)c  contaminated   with  the  germs  which 


KELATION    OF    ETIOLOGY    OF    BEE    DISEASES    TO    TREATMENT.       39 

cause  the  disease.  Honey  extractors,  honey  tanks,  and  wax  ex- 
tractors which  have  been  used  in  infected  apiaries  are  also  a  fruitful 
source  of  infection.  Therefore  if  you  are  to  keep  the  disease-pro- 
ducing bacteria  out  of  your  apiary,  and  thereby  keep  out  disease, 
you  must  not  feed  honey  unless  you  are  positive  that  it  did  not  come 
from  an  infected  apiary  or  that  it  has  been  thoroughly  boiled. 
Neither  must  you  use  old  combs  unless  you  are  positive  that  they 
have  not  been  in  an  infected  apiary.  Use  no  bee  supplies  from  an  in- 
fected apiary  unless  they  are  thoroughly  disinfected. 

These  things  being  true  of  the  infectious  disease  American  foul 
brood,  of  which  we  know  the  cause,  until  the  cause  of  any  other  in- 
fectious disease  can  be  determined  we  can  do  no  better  than  to  suggest 
the  use  of  the  same  principles  in  the  treatment  of  such  a  disease  as 
must  be  used  in  the  successful  treatment  of  American  foul  brood. 

CURATIVE    TREATMENT. 

In  the  curative  treatment,  considering  the  colony  as  a  unit,  use  is 
made  of  two  Avidely  different  principles — the  removal  of  the  disease- 
producing  material,  thereby  removing  the  germs,  and  the  use  of  drugs. 

In  separating  the  disease-producing  germs  from  the  colony,  all  the 
combs  are  removed.  This  removes  the  principal  sources  from  which 
the  brood  is  infected — foul-brood  larvae  and  honey.  It  is  always 
safer  to  allow  the  bees  to  go  into  a  ncAV  hive  or  a  hive  which  has  been 
thoroughly  disinfected.  The  greatest  care  should  be  exercised  in 
protecting  all  infectious  material  which  has  been  removed,  that  it  may 
not  be  robbed  by  the  bees. 

The  principle  involved  in  the  treatment  by  drugs  is  that  of  an  anti- 
septic. The  theory  is  that  a  small  amount  of  some  drug — like  beta 
naphthol,  salicylic  acid,  carbolic  acid,  eucalyptus,  formic  acid,  etc. — is 
sufficient,  when  taken  with  the  larval  food,  to  inhibit  the  growth  of 
the  pathogenic  bacteria. 

Having  thus  in  a  general  way  considered  the  subject  of  the  etiology 
of  disease  and  the  treatment  in  accordance  with  such  knowledge,  let 
us  consider  the  different  diseases  separately. 

AMERICAN  FOUL  BROOD. 

That  Bacillus  larvce  is  the  cause  of  American  foul  brood  has  been 
demonstrated  conclusively.  It  is  a  species  of  bacteria  which  when 
it  is  introduced  into  the  healthy  larvae  multiplies  rapidly  and  causes 
the  death  of  a  large  amount  of  the  brood.  ^Vhen  the  larva  dies  the  body 
decomposes  and  the  remains  dry  down  to  a  tongue-like  scale  on  the 
lower  side  wall  of  the  cell.  In  this  scale  are  millions  of  spores  which 
are  able  to  produce  disease  in  other  larvae  should  they  be  fed  to  them. 


40  MISCELLANEOUS   PAPERS   ON    APICULTURE. 

Just  how  the  bacteria  are  carried  from  a  dead  larva  to  a  healthy 
one  we  do  not  know.  It  is  not  unconnnon,  in  examining  the  brood,  to 
find  only  a  portion  of  a  larva  in  a  cell,  the  bees  having  removed  a 
part  of  it.  When  the  body  wall  of  a  larva  is  broken  in  examining 
for  foul  brood,  bees  readily  suck  up  the  contents  which  flow  out. 
This  is  true  when  the  larva  which  is  punctured  is  healthy,  or  when 
it  is  sick  with  disease,  or  after  it  has  been  dead  a  few  days.  The 
larva^  at  these  stages  of  the  disease  contain  a  very  large  number  of 
the  disease-producing  bacteria.  These  observations  would  indicate 
that  in  this  way,  in  part  at  least,  the  infectious  material  might  be 
carried  to  healthy  larva^.  Actual  contact  of  the  appendages  of  the 
bee  with  the  foul-brood  material,  and  the  subsequent  contact  of  the 
same  appendages  with  the  food  of  the  larva\  may  be  a  method  by 
which  the  disease-producing  bacteria  are  spread.  We  do  know  that 
in  foul  brood  it  is  possible  to  obtain  Bacillus  larvce  from  the  honey, 
and  we  do  know  that  when  bees  are  fed  the  spores  of  Bacillus  larvm 
in  honey  American  foul  brood  will  appear  in  the  apiary. 

The  spores  of  this  bacillus  are  very  resistant  to  heat  and  other 
disinfectants.  They  resist  the  boiling  temperature  of  water  for 
fifteen  minutes.  In  5  per  cent  carbolic  acid  they  were  not  killed  in 
two  months'  time.  This  was  demonstrated  by  obtaining  growth  in 
cultures  after  the  spores  had  remained  in  this  disinfectant  for  that 
length  of  time.  Likewise  it  has  been  demonstrated  that  the  spores 
of  Bacillus  larvce^  when  taken  from  the  scales  of  American  foul  brood, 
resist  the  action  of  mercuric  chloride  (corrosive  sublimate),  1:1,000 
aqueous  solution,  for  two  months.  Having  such  facts  before  us,  we 
can  better  judge  the  methods  for  treatment. 

In  treating  this  disease  we  must  bear  in  mind  the  j^reventive  and 
curative  measures.  In  the  preventive  treatment  many  of  the  condi- 
tions you  can  control;  others  may  be  difficult.  You  can  at  least  be 
sure  that  you  import  no  bees  or  used  supplies  which  might  have  been 
in  an  infected  apiar3\  Use  no  old  combs  and  feed  no  honey  of 
which  you  do  not  know  the  history.  In  this  way  the  bacillus  which 
causes  the  disease  in  a  large  measure  can  be  kept  out  of  the  apiary. 
There  are  conditions  which  are  difficult  to  control.  Should  a  near-by 
apiary  be  diseased  and  some  of  the  colonies  become  weak  or  die  out, 
it  might  be  difficult  for  you,  in  a  dearth  of  nectar,  to  keep  your  bees 
from  robbing  the  diseased  apiary  and  in  this  way  bringing  these 
disease-producing  germs  to  your  healthy  colonies. 

Some  preliminary  experiments  have  been  made,  but  the  results  do 
not  indicate  that  drugs,  in  the  treatment  of  this  disease,  have  the 
value  advocated  by  some  English  writers. 


RELATION    OF    ETIOLOGY    OF    BEE    DISEASES   TO    TREATMENT.       41 
EUROPEAN   FOUL   BROOD. 

European  foul  brood  is  another  infectious  bee  disease.  It  attacks 
the  brood  at  an  earlier  period  in  the  growth  of  the  larvae,  as  a  rule, 
than  American  foul  brood.  The  cause  of  this  disease  is  not  definitely 
known.  From  brood  dead  of  this  disease  Cheshire  and  Cheyne  iso- 
lated Bacillus  alvei.  From  their  work  it  was  long  supposed  that 
Bacillus  alvei  was  the  cause  of  the  disease,  but  later  investigations 
make  the  value  of  their  work  doubtful. 

A  number  of  organisms  have  been  found  in  the  larvae  dead  from 
this  disease  and  some  of  them  have  been  described.  One  species  has 
been  encountered  in  our  investigations  of  the  disease  which  is  of 
special  interest.  The  individuals  of  this  species  are  quite  small, 
apparently  non-spore-producing,  and  have  so  far  failed  to  grow  when 
soAvn  on  our  artificial  media.  Until  we  know  more  about  this  species 
it  will  be  referred  to  as  Bacillus  "  1'."  Since  the  cause  is  not  posi- 
tively known,  the  amount  of  heat  and  chemical  disinfectants  to  de- 
stroy the  virus  has  not  been  demonstrated.  If,  later.  Bacillus  "  Y  " 
is  demonstrated  to  be  the  cause,  we  shall  expect  that  very  much  less 
heat  will  be  sufficient  to  kill  it  than  is  necessary  to  kill  Bacillus  larvce^ 
the  cause  of  x\jnerican  foul  brood.  Likewise  we  shall  expect  that 
chemical  disinfectants  will  be  much  more  readily  effective.  Until  we 
know  more  about  the  etiolog}^  of  European  foul  brood  we  can  do  no 
better  than  to  suggest  the  application  of  the  same  principles  which  are 
found  advisable  in  American  foul  brood. 

SO-CALLED   ''  PICKLED   BROOD." 

We  refer  to  this  disorder  of  the  brood  as  the  "  so-called  pickled 
brood  '•  and  not  pickled  brood,  because  the  condition  which  AVilliam 
R.  Howard,  of  Fort  Worth,  Tex.,  described  is  not  Avhat  the  bee 
keepers  know  as  pickled  brood.  The  exciting  cause  of  this  disease 
is  not  known.  The  larvae  die  at  that  age  just  preceding  or  just  after 
capping.  Some  bee  keepers  haA^e  a  theory  that  heredity  plays  a  very 
important  part  as  a  predisposing  cause.  As  far  as  is  known  the 
disease  does  not  seem  to  be  infectious. 

This  disease  is  treated  by  some  bee  keepers  by  requeening,  on  the 
assumption  that  heredity  is  the  important  factor  in  the  production 
of  the  disease.  If  more  were  known  concerning  the  etiolog}^,  the 
treatment  might  be  materially  changed. 

PARALYSIS. 

Paralysis  is  a  disease  of  the  adult  bee.  The  cause  of  this  malady 
is  not  known.  It  does  not  seem  to  be  infectious,  although  in  some 
apiaries  a  large  number  of  colonies  ma}^  be  affected  at  the  same  time. 
Some  have  advanced  the  theor}-  that  the  character  of  the  food  is  the 
exciting  cause. 

78013°— Bull.  75—11 4 


42  MISCELLANEOUS   PAPERS   ON    APICULTURE. 

Since  we  know  nothing  positively  about  the  cause,  we  can  suggest 
very  little  in  the  way  of  treatment.  The  removal  of  the  stores  from 
the  hive  wouhl  tend  to  remedy  the  defect  if  the  character  of  the  food 
be  an  important  factor  in  the  etiology. 

SUMMARY  AND   CONCLUSIONS. 

We  have  now  briefly  considered  the  nature  and  the  etiology  of  bee 
diseases  and  liave  suggested  some  of  the  principles  upon  Avhich  the 
methods  of  treatment  must  depend  if  such  treatment  is  to  be  most 
efficient.  If  we  review  what  we  have  just  said  concerning  the 
etiology  and  treatment  of  the  different  diseases,  we  observe  the  follow- 
ing facts: 

There  is  but  one  disease,  American  foul  brood,  of  which  we  know 
absolutel}^  the  exciting  cause.  The  cause  is  a  species  of  bacteria,  but 
there  are  many  things  concerning  the  nature,  the  distribution,  and  the 
activity  of  which  we  do  not  know.  The  facts  wdiich  have  been  deter- 
mined enable  us  to  suggest  some  of  the  principles  upon  w^hich  the 
treatment  must  be  based.  Just  so  rapidly  as  our  knowledge  of  the 
etiolog}^  of  this  disease  increases,  so  rapidly  w^ill  we  be  able  to  suggest 
principles  for  the  improvement  of  the  methods  of  treatment. 

In  European  foul  brood  we  only  know  positively  that  the  disease 
is  infectious,  and  w^e  can  do  no  better  than  to  use  the  principles 
gained  by  the  study  of  American  foul  brood.  As  our  knowledge  of 
the  etiology  of  this  disease  increases,  the  methods  of  treatment  will 
be  altered. 

In  the  so-called  "  pickled  brood  "  w^e  do  not  seem  to  have  an  in- 
fectious disease.  Nothing  is  positively  known  of  the  etiology  except 
that  the  larvic  die  at  approximately  the  same  age  in  all  cases,  which  is 
about  the  time  of  capping.  The  treatment  that  is  used  by  some  is 
based  upon  the  principle  that  heredity  is  an  important  factor,  and 
therefore  requeening  is  resorted  to. 

In  the  disease  of  adult  bees  known  as  "  paralysis,"  practically  noth- 
ing is  knoAvn  and  practically  no  treatment  is  known  to  be  effective. 

It  will  be  noted  that  in  every  case  the  treatment  of  bee  diseases 
is  based  upon  the  knowledge  of  the  etiology.  There  are  many  things 
of  very  great  importance  in  the  etiology  which  are  j^et  to  be  deter- 
mined, but  there  are  many  things  which  are  known  that,  if  applied 
by  the  bee  keeper,  will  prove  to  be  of  great  value  to  him  financially. 
It  is  to  be  hoped,  then,  that  the  bee  keei)er  will  make  himself  as  fa- 
miliar as  possible  with  the  nature  of  the  etiology  of  bee  diseases,  since 
it  is  clear  that  the  better  the  cause  is  known  the  better  will  be  the 
treatment.  From  this  discussion  one  conclusion  can  be  drawn — that 
in  the  knowledge  of  the  etiology  of  bee  diseases  lies  the  hope  of  their 
control. 


Bui.  75,  Pt.  V,  Bureau  of  Entomology,  U,  S.  Dept.  ol  Agriculture. 


Plate  V. 


U.   S.  D.   A.,  B.   E.   Bui.   75,   Part  V.  A.,   January  19,   1909. 

MISCELLANEOUS  PAPERS  ON  APICULTURE. 


A  BRIEF  SURVEY  OF  HAWAIIAN  BEE  KEEPING. 

By  E.  F.  Phillips,  Ph,  D., 

In  charge  of  Apiculture. 

INTRODUCTION. 

Bee  keeping  on  the  Hawaiian  Islands  is  one  of  the  minor  industries 
which  is  being  conducted  with  profit.  As  in  all  other  places,  this 
business  can  never,  from  its  ver}^  nature,  become  a  leading  industry, 
but  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  there  is  yet  room  for  considerable 
expansion.  The  modified  methods  made  necessary  b}^  a  tropical 
climate  and  other  conditions  of  a  local  character  present  some  new 
phases  of  the  keeping  of  bees,  and  in  view  of  the  fact  that  these  modi- 
fications will  be  of  interest  to  bee  keepers  on  the  mainland,  as  well  as 
to  those  in  Hawaii,  it  seems  desirable  to  put  on  record  a  brief  account 
of  what  the  author  was  able  to  observe  personally  and  to  learn  from 
others  in  the  four  weeks  spent  on  the  islands  in  making  an  apicul- 
tural  survey. 

The  author  would  express  his  thanks  to  the  bee  keepers  of  the 
islands  for  the  cordial  way  in  which  they  anticipated  his  every  desire 
in  2:>lanning  the  trips  of  investigation.  He  would  also  mention  the 
particular  assistance  of  Mr.  D.  L.  Van  Dine,  entomologist  of  the 
Hawaii  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  who  accompanied  him 
on  all  his  trips,  and  from  whom  much  of  the  information  in  this 
paper  was  gathered. 

PUBLICATIONS   ON   HAWAIIAN   BEE   KEEPING. 

Different  phases  of  Hawaiian  bee  keeping  are  discussed  in  other 
publications,  a  list  of  which  is  appended."     The  bee  keepers  of  the 

«  Reports  of  the  Royal  Hawaiian  Agricultural  Society  (1851-1856). 

A  Brief  History  of  the  Hawaiian  People,  by  W.  D.  Alexander,  1899,  p.  286. 

Report  of  the  Entomologist,  by  D.  L.  Van  Dine,  in  Report  on  Agricultural 
Investigations  in  Hawaii,  1905,  by  Jared  G.  Smith.  Bulletin  170,  Office  of 
Experiment  Stations,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture,  1906. 

Report  of  the  Entomologist,  by  D.  L.  Van  Dine,  in  the  Annual  Report  of  the 
Hawaii  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  for  1907,  1908. 

Introduction  of  Honey-Producing  Plants,  by  D,  L.  Van  Dine;  Hawaiian 
Forester  and  Agriculturist,  Vol.  V,  pp.  9-13. 

Hawaiian  Honeys,  by  D.  L.  Van  Dine  and  Alice  R.  Thompson.  Bulletin  17, 
Hawaii  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  1908. 

Chemical  Analysis  and  Composition  of  American  Honeys,  by  C.  A.  Browne, 
including  a  Microscopical  Study  of  Honey  Pollen,  by  W.  J.  Young..  Bulletin 
I\'o.  110,  Bureau  of  Chemistry,  V,  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture.  1903. 

43 


44  MISCELLANEOUS   PAPKRS   ON    APICULTURE. 

islaiuls  have  been  exlreiiiely  fortunate  in  enlisting  the  interest  of  the 
Hawaii  A<j:ricultural  Experiment  Station.  ]\Ir.  D.  L.  Van  Dine,  the 
entomologist  of  the  station,  has  been  very  active  in  rendering  valuable 
assistance  to  the  bee-keeping  industry  by  his  investigations,  and  Miss 
Alice  R.  Thompson,  the  acting  chemist,  has  done  good  work  in  chem- 
ical analysis  of  honeys. 

BEE-KEEPERS'  ASSOCIATION. 

The  bee  keepers  of  Hawaii  are  organized  into  an  active  and  efficient 
association,  which  has  been  in  existence  about  two  years.  By  united 
effort  this  organization  has  accomplished  much  that  is  of  great  value 
to  the  industry.  When  the  question  of  marketing  their  honey  under 
the  regulations  of  the  food  and  drugs  act  of  1906  arose  they  sent  a 
representative  to  Washington  to  present  their  case.  In  this  and 
many  other  ways  the  bee  men  have  shown  themselves  to  be  alert  and 
progressive  in  looking  after  their  best  interests. 

METHODS  OF  MANAGEMENT. 

At  the  present  time  bee  keeping  is  largely  in  the  hands  of  four 
corporations,  they  owning  and  operating  at  least  four- fifths  of  all 
the  bees  on  the  islands.  These  companies  are  all  managed  by  Ameri- 
can citizens,  but  there  are  a  number  of  smaller  apiaries,  some  of  which 
are  owned  by  Japanese.  The  last-named  apiaries  are  usually  not  so 
well  kept  nor  are  they  so  productive.  The  total  number  of  colonies 
at  present  is  probably  about  20,000,  and  the  annual  output  of  honey, 
which  is  mostly  shipped  to  the  mainland  or  to  Europe,  is  probably 
about  000  tons.'^  The  keeping  of  bees  b}'  corporations,  as  opposed  to 
individual  ownership,  is  something  which  is  rarely  observed  else- 
where. As  they  are  located  a  considerable  distance  from  the  market 
and  as  the  expense  of  supplies  and  shipping  is  high,  it  has  seemed 
desirable  to  the  bee  keepers  to  organize  companies  so  that  they  may 
make  large  shipments.  There  is  also  on  the  Hawaiian  Islands  a 
tendency,  to  a  marked  degree,  to  incorporate  all  industries,  and  doubt- 
less the  prevalence  of  this  method  of  conducting  business  has  induced 
the  bee  keepers  to  adopt  it  also.  With  this  system  it  is  possible  for 
one  skilled  manager  to  oversee  the  manipulation  of  several  thousand 
colonies,  the  actual  manipulation  being  done  in  most  cases  by  the 
Japanese  helpers;  in  this  way  the  cost  of  maintenance  of  the  apiaries 
is  reduced  very  considerably.  Since  the  2:)rice  obtained  for  Hawaiian 
honey  is  still  rather  low,  it  is  of  course  iKM'ossary  to  reduce  expense  in 
every  way  possible. 

**The  crop  for  1008  will  prol)al)ly  amount  to  nearly  1,000  tons,  according  to  a 
recent  report  from  the  entomologist. 


Bui.   75.    Pt.  IV,   Bureau  of  Entomology,   U.   S.   Dept.  of  Agriculture. 


Plate  vi. 


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A    BRIEF    SURVEY    OF    HAWAIIAN    BEE    KEEPING.  45 

"BEE   RIGHTS." 

The  buying  of  "  bee  rights,"  as  it  is  practiced  in  Hawaii,  is  some- 
thing practically  unheard  of  elsewhere,  and  would  certainly  appear 
to  a  mainland  bee  keeper  as  a  new  and  strange  procedure.  The  near- 
est approach  to  it  is  the  renting  of  locations  for  outyards,  which  can 
not  usually  insure  no  competition.  This  practice  would  not  be  pos- 
sible were  it  not  for  the  fact  that  most  of  the  available  agricultural 
land  on  the  islands  is  held  in  large  tracts,  mostly  as  sugar-cane  planta- 
tions and  ranches.  Arrangements  are  made  with  the  manager  of 
a  plantation  for  locations  for  apiaries,  and  the  bee  keeper  agrees 
to  pay  a  certain  amount  for  the  use  of  the  land  and  for  the  honey 
removed  from  these  apiaries.  Frequently  this  is  in  the  form  of  an 
agreement  to  pay  a  certain  sum  for  each  ton  of  honey  removed  from 
the  plantation,  but  at  times  it  is  a  fixed  sum  for  the  year,  the  bee  keeper 
assuming  what  small  risk  there  is  of  not  getting  a  crop.  The  planta- 
tion management  in  turn  agrees  to  allow  no  other  bee  keepers  to  keep 
bees  in  its  territor}^  There  are  frequently  small  holdings  within  the 
boundaries  of  the  plantation  over  which  the  plantation  company  has 
no  control,  and  some  other  bee  keeper  may  lease  these  with  the  idea 
of  allowing  his  bees  to  range  over  the  entire  plantation.  If,  for 
example,  he  puts  200  colonies  on  such  a  holding,  the  immediate 
placing  of  say  500  colonies  just  across  the  line  has  a  discouraging- 
effect  on  this  poaching  and  it  can  end  in  onh^  one  way,  since  the  bee 
keeper  who  has  a  right  there  has  the  advantage.  The  same  thing 
happens  when  an  outside  bee  keeper  gets  too  close  to  the  boundary 
line. 

Naturally,  when  land  is  divided  into  smaller  holdings,  as  is  the 
case  almost  everywhere  on  the  mainland,  such  an  arrangement  is  not 
possible  and  a  bee  keeper  must  run  the  risk  of  competition.  There  is 
no  way  of  telling  what  amount  of  honey  is  taken  from  any  given 
area  when  the  tracts  are  small.  The  moral  right  of  priority  claim, 
which  so  many  bee  keepers  advocate,  has  small  place  in  the  manipula- 
tions of  territory  in  Hawaii,  where  the  bee-keeping  companies  pay 
for  what  they  get  and  insist  on  getting  it.  One  of  the  large  com- 
panies gains  its  exclusive  right  by  reason  of  the  fact  that  it  owns  and 
leases  a  tract  of  over  100,000  acres  for  ranch  purposes. 

EXTENT  OF   THE  INDUSTRY. 

At  the  present  time  there  are  on  the  islands  probably  about  20,000 
colonies  of  bees,  most  of  which  are,  as  above  stated,  owned  by  four 
companies.  From  the  custom-house  statistics  it  is  shown  that  the 
annual  shipments  of  honey  amount  to  about  1,000  tons.  The  island 
of  Kauai  now  supports  about  3,000  colonies,  and,  after  traveling 
over  almost  the  entire  cultivated  portion  of  the  island,  the  author 


40)  MISCELLANEOUS   PAPERS   ON    APICULTURE. 

is  of  the  ()j)ini()n  that  tlie  island  is  just  about  half  stocked.  The 
island  of  Oahu  seems  to  be  Avell  covered  from  an  apicultural  stand- 
point. Molokai  is  not  a  cane-producing  island,  but  the  algarroba 
forest  is  nearly  stocked,  and  the  only  place  for  heavy  expansion  seems 
to  be  in  the  mountains,  where  several  forest  trees  are  nectar  bearing. 
The  island  of  Maui  could  not  be  examined  as  carefully  as  the  others 
on  account  of  inclement  weather,  but  from  reports  received  it  is  ob- 
viously not  stocked  to  the  extent  that  it  should  be.  The  island  of 
Hawaii,  the  largest  of  the  group,  is  relatively  the  least  developed  of 
any  of  the  islands.  There  are  only  a  few  apiaries  on  this  area,  which 
is  almost  equal  in  extent  to  Connecticut,  and  there  are  great  possibili- 
ties. On  the  south  coast  there  are  vast  areas  of  cane,  and  the  same 
is  true  of  the  ITamakua  coast  on  the  north.  The  Kona  coast  would 
probably  support  some  bees  in  the  coffee  plantations.  One  such 
apiary  was  seen  by  the  author  (PL  VII,  fig.  2).  On  the  interior  of 
the  island  there  are  vast  areas  wdiich  are  entirely  undeveloped  from 
an  apicultural  standpoint,  and  the  island  can  doubtless  support 
thousands  of  colonies  of  bees  at  a  profit. 

The  total  area  now  actually  stocked  w4th  apiaries  would  not  nearly 
equal  in  size  one-half  the  State  of  Rhode  Island,  while  the  honey  crop 
is  probabW  20  times  as  great  as  in  that  State.  According  to  the 
Census  Report  for  Rhode  Island  it  would  be  40  times  as  great,  but  we 
can  not  use  this  figure  on  account  of  its  obvious  unreliability.  This 
comparison  w^ill  show  the  honey-producing  capabilities  of  the  islands 
as  compared  with  our  more  northern  countries,  and  will  also  show  how 
thoroughly  the  areas  are  stocked  where  the  industry  has  been  taken 
up.  A  small  part  of  Oahu  is  doubtless  overstocked,  due  to  crowxling 
into  a  given  area  by  competitive  companies.  There  was  no  evidence 
of  such  overstocking  elsewhere. 

Overstocking  an  area  with  bees  is  a  subject  much  discussed  among 
bee  men,  and  the  situation  in  Hawaii  illustrates  very  beautifully  the 
fact  that  a  theoretical  discussion  of  how  many  colonies  ma}'  be  kept 
in  one  place  is  of  no  value  whatever.  Each  location  must  be  judged 
on  its  owm  merits,  and  a  given  area  wdiich  wdll  support  only  20  colonies 
in  one  region  may  support  1,000  elsewhere.  It  is  also  obvious  that 
seasons  vary  to  a  marked  degree.  In  many  parts  of  the  mainland  it 
is  deemed  advisable  to  keep  not  more  than  100  colonies  in  one  apiary 
and  to  allow  each  apiary  a  radius  of  1\  to  3  miles.  On  the  basis  of 
these  figures,  from  50  to  200  acres  are  necessary  to  support  a  single 
colony  of  bees.  Without  discussing  the  merits  of  these  figures,  it  is 
enough  to  say  that  this  is  the  connnon  mainland  practice,  particularly 
in  the  more  densely  populated  areas.  In  contrast  to  this,  an  examina- 
tion of  the  methods  in  Hawaii  is  extremely  significant.  One  area  of 
cane  on  the  island  of  Oahu  contains  a  little  over  20,000  acres.    As  will 


Bui.  75,  Pt.  V,  Bureaj  of  Er.-tonr.ology.  U.  S.  Dept.  o*  Ag-icu:ture. 


Plate  VII. 


Fig.  1.— a  Typical   Hawaiian  Afiary,  the   Hives  on  Stands  to    Prevent  Ant 
Attacks.    'Original.' 


Fig.  2.— Aw  Apiary  in  a  Coffee  Plantation.    (Original. 


A    BRIEF    SURVEY    OF    HAWAIIAN    BEE    KEEPING.  47 

be  discussed  later,  this  is  not  all  equally  productive  from  a  bee-keeping 
standpoint.  Near  this  is  some  algarroba  forest,  but  not  enough  to  in- 
fluence the  crop  very  much.  This  area  supports  nearh^  5,000  colonies, 
some  of  which  yield  exceptionally  large  crops.  In  certain  parts  of 
this  area  competition  is  too  strong  to  yield  proper  results,  but  some 
apiaries  yield  over  200  pounds  to  the  colony.  In  some  other  cane  areas 
this  record  can  be  almost  equaled.  Algarroba  will  not  produce  so 
much  per  acre,  but  this  is  parth'  due  to  the  fact  that  it  blooms  for  less 
than  six  months,  while  cane  fields  furnish  honeydew  every  day  in  the 
year.  One  strip  of  algarroba  forest  on  Molokai  supports  nearly  2,000 
colonies.  It  will  not  average  more  than  one-half  mile  in  width,  and 
about  30  miles  of  it  is  used  for  bees. 

SOURCES   OF  HONEY. 

FLORAL  HONEY. 

The  amount  of  floral  honey  produced  on  the  islands  annually  is 
about  200  tons.  Formerly  the  only  source  of  honey  on  the  islands 
which  was  widely  enough  distributed  to  make  bee  keeping  commer- 
cially important  was  algarroba,  native  '*  keawe."  (PL  VIII,  fig.  1.) 
This  tree  was  introduced  into  the  islands  by  Father  Bachelot,  founder 
of  the  Roman  Catholic  mission,  in  1837,  and  the  original  tree  still 
stands  on  Fort  street,  in  Honolulu.  It  has  been  carried  to  all  the 
islands  and  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  plants  ever  brought  into  the 
group.  It  furnishes  not  only  an  excellent  honey,  but  the  pods  afford 
excellent  fodder  and  the  wood  is  the  main  source  of  fuel. 

The  honey  from  algarroba  is  "  water  white  "  in  color  and  granulates 
very  soon  after  it  is  stored  by  the  bees  in  spite  of  the  warm  climate  of 
the  islands.  This  characteristic  makes  frequent  extractions  necessary 
to  prevent  the  combs  from  being  clogged.  In  regions  where  algarroba 
is  practicalh^  the  only  source  of  honey,  at  the  close  of  the  flow  an 
amount  of  honey  sufficient  to  keep  up  the  colony  until  the  next  flow 
is  left  in  the  hive.  This,  of  course,  soon  granulates.  AMien  the 
hone}'  flow  diminishes,  the  brood  chamber  is  reduced*  and  considerable 
honey  is  stored  in  the  space  formerly  occupied  by  brood.  "Wlien 
the  next  flow  comes  on,  a  good  deal  of  this  granulated  honey  remains 
in  the  combs,  and  since  this  can  not  be  extracted,  these  combs  are  re- 
moved and  replaced  either  by  empty  combs  or  by  foundation,  to  give 
the  queen  more  room.  These  combs  containing  granulated  honey  are 
then  placed  in  huge  solar  extractors,  the  largest  that  the  author  had 
ever  seen.  With  200  or  more  colonies  in  an  apiary,  there  is  often  need 
for  a  solar  extractor  which  will  hold  several  hundred  combs  at  a  time, 
and  practically  every  apiary  visited  by  the  author  had  such  a  piece  of 
apparatus  as  part  of  the  equipment.     The  sun's  heat  liquefies  the 


48  MISCELLANEOUS   PAPERS   ON    APICULTURE. 

lionev  and  molts  most  of  tlio  Avax,  and  i\w  wax  from  the  "  slumgum  " 
is  then  extracted  by  the  usual  methods.  The  honey  from  these  solar 
extractors  is  not  darkened,  as  one  would  expect. 

The  algarroba  tree  {Pro^opls  juUfora)  is  either  the  same  species  as 
or  very  closely  related  to  the  mesquite  of  the  southwest.  On  the 
islands  it  grows  to  the  size  of  a  tree,  as  is  also  the  case  in  Mexico.  In 
Texas  it  is  generally  very  much  smaller.  In  1008  the  tree  came  into 
bloom  about  the  1st  of  March,  the  time  varying  considerably  in  dif- 
ferent localities  on  the  islands.  It  usually  blooms  until  August,  and 
this  very  long  blooming  period  adds  greatly  to  its  value  to  the  bee 
keepers. 

The  following  list  of  honey  plants,  other  than  algarroba,  is  fur- 
nished by  Mr.  D.  L.  Van  Dine,  entomologist  of  the  Hawaii  Agri- 
cultural Experiment  Station.  Mr.  Van  Dine  has  studied  the  honey 
sources  of  the  islands  very  thoroughly.  Many  of  these  plants  were 
pointed  out  to  the  writer  while  he  was  on  the  islands. 

FOREST    TREES. 

Texas  mesquite  (Prosopis  glandulosa).  Growing  in  dooryard  of  Mr.  C.  C. 
Conradt,  Pukoo,  island  of  Molokai.  Seeds  under  propagation  at  Hawaii  Agri- 
cultural Experiment  Station.  Introduced  by  Mr.  Conradt  from  Texas  several 
years  ago. 

Obia  lebua  (Metrosideros  pohjmorplia).  Produces  a  particularly  bigb  grade 
of  boney.  Locations  for  apiaries  as  a  rule  somewbat  inaccessible.  One  location 
on  tbe  island  of  Molokai  is  witbin  tbe  obia  lebua  belt. 

Various  species  of  Acacia  (black  wattle,  koa,  etc.).     Mountainous  districts. 

Various  species  of  Eucalyptus.    Mountainous  districts. 

Wiliwili  (Erythrina  monosperma) .    In  gulcbes  on  Molokai  and  Oabu. 

Rose-apple  {Eugenia  jambos). 

Mamani  {Sophora  clirysophylla).    Found  in  bigber  forest  belts. 

Catalpa  {Cntalpa  speciosa  and  C.  hignonioidrs).  Introduced  by  Mr.  .Tared 
G.  Smitb,  April,  1902,  from  tbe  Missouri  Botanical  Gardens.  Tbe  seeds  were 
distributed  to  L.  von  Tempsky,  Makawao,  and  11.  P.  Baldwin,  Puuneue,  on 
Maui ;  to  S.  M.  Damon,  Moanalua  Gardens,  on  Oabu ;  to  Francis  Gay, 
Makaweli,  on  Kauai ;  and  to  Louissou  Brothers  and  Albert  Horner,  Hamakua, 
and  B.  B.  Bond,  Kobala,  on  Hawaii.  Tbe  seeds  were  sent  to  tbe  above-named 
parties  under  date  of  April  10,  1902.  No  reports  are  on  file  at  tbis  station  as 
to  tbe  results  of  tbis  introduction. 

Logwood  {Ilwinatoxylon  cnmpcchinnum).  Found  in  dooryards.  Two  trees 
are  growing  in  tbe  grounds  of  Oabu  College  and  one  in  tbe  grounds  of  Lunalilo 
Home,  Honolulu.  Seeds  under  propagation  at  Hawaii  Agricultural  Experi- 
ment Station.  Tbe  boney  produced  by  bees  from  this  tree  is  repcn'ted  to  be 
the  finest  table  honey  in  the  world.  Tbe  propagation  and  distribution  of  tbe 
logwood  throughout  the  Territory  would  be  of  great  value  to  bee  keepers.  Tbe 
wood  furnishes  the  logwood  dye  of  commerce. 

The  black  mangrove  of  Florida.  Introduced  by  Mr.  Jared  G.  Smitb  from 
southern  Florida,  for  tbe  puri)ose  of  preventing  tbe  mud  flats  from  washing, 
along  the  coast  of  Molokai  near  Kaunakakai.  Tbe  introduction  was  made 
several  years  ago  and  tbe  trees  are  now  well  established  at  tbe  above-mentioned 
place.  Tbe  tree  is  a  valuable  boney  plant.  The  station  is  now  trying  to  secure 
the  Philipi)ine  mangrove,  a  tree  suitable  for  similar  locations  but  po.ssessing 
greater  value  as  a  timber,  tree. 


Bui.  75,  Pt.  V,  Bureau  of  Entomology.  U.  S.  Deot  of  Agriculture. 


Plate  VIII. 


FiQ.  1.— Part  of  an  Algarroba  Forest.  'Original.) 


Fig.  2.— a  Lantana  Jungle.  (Original.) 


A    BRIEF    SURVEY    OF    HAWAIIAN    BEE    KEEPING.  49 

FRUIT   TREES. 

Various  species  of  Citrus  (orange,  lemon,  lime,  etc.)- 

Avocado  {Persca  gratissima). 

Bauana  (Musa  spp.)- 

Guara  (Psiflium  spp.). 

Loquat  (Eriohotrya  japonica). 

Tamarind  (Tamarindus  indica). 

PASTURE  PLANTS. 

California  burr-clover  {Mcdicago  dcnticulata).  Introduced  on  Maui  in  1882 
by  Mr.  C.  R.  Blacow.    Now  found  generally  on  the  ranches  of  the  islands. 

Carpet  grass  (Lippia  rcpens).  Growing  on  grounds  of  Hawaii  Agricultural 
Experiment  Station. 

Alfilaria  or  filaree  {Erodium  cicutariiim  and  E.  moschatiim).  Seeds  intro- 
duced in  California  hay.  Established  on  upland  pastures  on  Hawaii  and 
Mololjai. 

White  clover  (Trifolitiin  rcpens).  Found  on  Haleakala  and  Makawao 
pastures.  Maui. 

CROP    PLANTS. 

Sisal  (Agave  sisalana). 

Various  species  of  cucurbits   (melons,  squashes,  pumpkins,  cucumbers,  etc.). 

FORAGE   PLANTS. 

Alfalfa,  several  varieties. 

Lupine,  blue  and  yellow.  Occasionally  used  as  green  manure  plant  on  sugar 
plantations. 

Tangier  pea  {Lathy rus  tingitanus).     Growing  at  Haiku,  Maui. 

Sanfoin  (Onobrychis  sativa).  A  forage  plant  introduced  by  Mr.  Jared  G. 
Smith  in  1904.     Seed  distributed  to  ranches. 

ORNAMENTAL   PLANTS. 

Palms,  particularly  the  royal  and  cocoanut. 

Poppy,  a  horticultural  form  of  Romneya  eoulteri,  found  in  gardens  in 
Honolulu. 

Chinese  ink-berry  {Cestntm  diitrnum). 
Thevetia  neriifolia. 
Vines  (Ipomcea  spp.). 

WEEDS. 

Lantana,  two  species.     (Plate  VIII,  fig.  2.) 

California  sages  {Artemisia).  Introduced  by  Hawaiian  Bee  Keepers'  Asso- 
ciation in  1907.  Not  as  yet  established.  Suitable  for  waste,  arid  lands.  The 
most  important  honey  plant  in  California.     Valuable  as  a  forage  plant. 

Ilima  {Sida  spp.). 

Oi  {Verbena  honariensis). 

Pili  grass  {Heteropogon  contort  us). 

Spanish  needle  (lauki)    (Bidens  pUosa). 

Puakala  {Argemonc  mexicana). 

Alii  {Dodonwa  viscosa  var.  spathulata). 

Hila  hila   (undetermined). 

Other  weeds  are  Waltheria  americana,  Ipomwa  pes-caprw  (vine  along  sea 
coast),  and  ilalvastruni  tricuspidatum. 

OTHER  SOURCES  OF  HONEY. 

Insect  honey  dew. — Hawaii  is  peculiar  in  that  most  of  the  honey 
produced  is  from  some  source  other  than  flowers.    Two-thirds  of  the 


50 


MISCELLANEOUS   PAPERS   ON    APICULTURE. 


honey  shipped  annually  from  the  islands  is  largely  or  entirely  honey- 
dew  honey.  By  far  the  greater  part  of  this  comes, from  the  exuda- 
tions of  the  sugar-cane  leaf  hopper  {Perh'mmella  saccharicida  Kirk.) 
and  possibly  some  of  it  from  the  sugar-cane  aphis  {Aphis  sacchari 
Zehnt.),  although  while  on  the  islands  the  author  observed  none  of 
the  latter  S2)ecies.  (See  PI.  IX,  fig.  1,  showing  an  apiary  near  a  field 
of  sugar  cane.)  Of  course,  in  a  tropical  country  there  are  many  other 
insects  producing  more  or  less  honeydew.  The  young  "  plant  cane  " 
is  most  abundantly  covered  w^ith  leafhoppers. 

Honeydew  from  the  sugar-cane  leafliopper  is  very  dark  amber  in 
color  and  slightly  ropy.  In  flavor  it  very  strongly  resembles  molasses 
from  the  cane  juice.  Since  the  color  and  flavor  are  so  marked,  a  small 
amount  of  this  when  mixed  with  the  mild,  light-colored  algarroba 
honey  imparts  the  color  and  flavor  of  honeydew  to  the  entire  amount. 
Most  honeydew  honeys  on  the  mainland  granulate  very  rapidly,  but 
this  type  does  not  granulate  at  all.  Samples  several  years  old  are  as 
clear  as  when  first  extracted. 

The  chemical  composition  °  of  Hawaiian  honeydew  honey  is  quite 
unlike  that  of  floral  honey,  and  this  fact  has  led  to  the  charge  of 
adulteration  by  bu3^ers  on  the  mainland  and  in  foreign  markets. 
Since  nowhere  else,  as  far  as  the  author  is  aware,  is  honeydew  honey 
produced  in  such  large  quantities,  it  is  not  strange  that  cursory  ex- 
aminations were  misleading.  The  author  saw  enough  while  on  the 
islands  to  convince  him  that,  howev^er  unlike  floral  honey  this  product 
may  be,  it  is  a  natural  sweet  product  collected  and  stored  by  the  bee 
and  is  then  extracted  and  shipped  with  no  additions  of  other  sugars. 

AVhen  the  food  and  drugs  act  of  lOOG  went  into  effect  the  Ha- 
waiian Bee  Keepers'  Association  sent  a  representative  to  Washington 
to  find  out  under  what  name  they  could  market  their  crop,  since  it 
does  not  conform  to  the  standard  of  the  Association  of  Official 
Agricultural  Chemists.  They  were  informed  that  it  could  be  sold 
on  the  mainland  market  provided  it  were  labeled  just  what  it  is.    This 


ChrmirnJ  coiupoKlfion  of  Hawaiian  lioncyilcw  honcij  made  from  siipar-cane 

honeydew. 


[From  Bulletin  No. 

no,  Bureau  of  Chemistry, 

p.  37. 

Polarization. 

Complete  analysis. 

Free 
acid 

HS 

for- 
mic. 

Re- 
duc- 
ing 

su- 
gars 

as 

dex- 
trose. 

Diri'ct. 

Invert. 

Im- 
medi- 
ate, 
2(FC. 

Con- 
stant, 
20°  C. 

Bl- 

rota- 
tion. 

20°  C. 

87°  C. 

Dif- 
fer- 
ence. 

Wa- 
ter. 

In- 
vert 
su- 
gar. 

Suc- 
rose. 

Ash. 

Dex- 
trin. 

Un- 
de- 
ter- 
min- 
ed. 

Remarks. 

+24.9 

+17.75 

7.15 

+18.68 

+84.76 

21.28 

16.46 

64.84 

6.27 

1.29 

10.01 

3.13 

0.15 

62.1 

High  in  chlorid. 

Bui.  75,  Pt.  V,  Bureau  of  Entomolog-y.  U.  S    Dept.  of  Agriculture. 


Plate  IX. 


Fig.  1.— An  Apiary  Near  a  Sugar-cane  Field.    'Original. 


Fig.  2.— Molasses  Trough  for  Feeding  Cattle.    (Original.) 


A    BRIEF    SURVEY    OF    HAWAIIAN    BEE    KEEPING. 


51 


the  Hawaiian  bee  keepers  have  done  and  it  is  now  sold  as  **  honeydew 
honey."  The  bee  keepers  of  Hawaii  fully  realize  the  peculiar  honey 
with  which  the}^  have  to  deal  and  are  not  attempting  to  market  honey- 
dew  honej'  in  competition  with  floral  honey  for  table  use.  It  goes  to 
the  baking  trade  and  for  such  use  is  reported  to  be  satisfactory;  at 
any  rate,  the  price  received  is  equal  to  that  received  for  algarroba 
honey. 

As  stated  elsewhere,  bees  prefer  floral  nectar  to  honeydew.  How- 
ever, when  the  supply  of  floral  nectar  is  not  great,  the  bees  work  on 
both,  and  as  a  result  there  are  mixtures  of  the  two.  stored  in  the 
hives,  varying  all  the  way  fi'om  the  x^ure  honeydew  honey  to  pure 
floral  honey.  It  is  these  mixtures  that  cause  the  trouble  in  labeling. 
One  of  the  requisites  of  a  pure  honey  as  defined  by  the  standards" 
is  that  it  shall  be  laevorotator}^  to  polarized  light ;  hence,  since  honey- 
dew honey  is  dextrorotatory  and  there  are  blends  made  by  the  bees  of 
this  and  algarroba  honey,  it  is  necessary  to  have  a  chemical  analysis 
made  to  be  absolutely  certain  whether  a  given  quantity  of  the  product 
of  the  islands  may  be  sold  as  honey  or  as  honeydew  honey.  The 
various  mixtures  which  occur  are  well  illustrated  in  Plate  I  of  Bul- 
letin 110.  Bureau  of  Chemistry,  here  reproduced  as  Plate  VI.  This 
plate  illustrates  very  well  the  influence  of  honeydew  on  the  physical 
properties  of  honey.  At  one  end  of  the  series  is  the  pure  algarroba, 
which  is  represented  as  granulated,  while  at  the  other  end  is  a  sam- 
ple of  honeydew  honey  which  is  as  pure  as  it  is  usually  found.  Be- 
tween the  two  in  perfect  gradation  are  shown  various  mixtures  just 
as  they  came  from  the  hive  in  various  extractings.  The  chemical 
analyses  of  these  particular  samples,  made  by  Miss  Alice  R.  Thomp- 
son,* show  that  the  chemical  composition  varies  in  exactly  the  same 
way.    Of  these  samples.  Doctor  Browne  ^  says : 

From  the  polarizations  and  analyses  of  these  samples  (as  given  in  the  table) 
it  will   be  seen  that  there  is  a   range  in  direct  polarization  from  — 22.0  to 


«  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Office  of  the  Secretary,  Cir.  19,  p.  11. 
^  Polarization  and  analyses  of  honeydeic  blends. 
[From  Bui.  17,  Hawaii  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.] 


Data. 


Algar- 
roba 
honey. 


Polarization  direct 

(°V) -22.00 

Polarization  invert  | 

(°V) -27.61 

Sucrose  (percent).-  3.58 
Reducing    sugar  I 

(percent) '    76.84 

Ash  (percent) '       .34 

Nonsugars  (per  I 

cent) 1.41 


-18.3 


21.4 
2.4 


76.  M 

.58 


1.67 


Blends. 


14.3 


-17.3 
2.3 


T7.28 
.69 

1.81 


11.5 
2.2 


72.36 
.72 


-0.3 


-3.8 
2.7 


65.56 
1.06 


+0.5 
-4.2 


56.16 
1.11 


12.09 


-1-4.0 


-1.0 
2.3 


67.28 
1.12 


11.84 


^3.2 
4.5 


63.08 
1.33 


15.27 


+19.2 


+12.4 
5.3 


58.92 
1.77 


17.68 


Honey- 
dew. 


10. 


+24.5 


+15.3 
7.2 


59.76 
2.04 


15.88 


Bill.  110,  Bnrean  of  Chemistry,  pp.  55-56. 


52  MISCKLLANEOUS   PAPERS   ON    APICULTURE. 

+24.5;  in  a«b,  from  0.34  per  cent  to  2.04  per  cent;  in  redncing  sngars,  from 
70.S4  per  cent  to  59.70  per  cent ;  and  in  organic  matter  not  sngar,  from  1.41  per 
cent  to  15.S.S  per  cent.  In  sncrost*  also  tliere  is  an  irregnlar  increase  from  3.58 
to  7.2  iH'r  cent,  tills  increase  lu'coming  more  regular  as  soon  as  tlie  quantity  of 
lioney(l<'\v  is  sullicient  to  mask  the  variation  in  sucrose  content  of  tlie  individual 
honeys  in  the  series  of  blends.  The  granulation  of  the  blends  decreases  with 
the  increase  of  honeydew  and  ceases  at  about  the  point  of  optical  inactivity. 
The  latter  point,  as  has  been  said,  is  taken  by  the  chemist  as  the  arbitrary 
dividing  line  between  normal  and  abnormal  honeys,  and  bee  keepers,  in  the 
Hawaiian  Islands  who  are  troubled  with  honeydew  have  in  the  matter  of  gran- 
ulation a  rough  guide  for  the  classification  of  tlieir  product.  If  the  honey 
granulates,  it  may  be  put  in  the  normal  class;  if  it  remains  liquid  for  any 
length  of  time,  it  probably  belongs  to  the  class  of  honeydews.  This  statement 
does  not  apply  in  general  to  mainland  honeys. 

The  dextrorotatory  honeydew  honeys  can  not  be  regarded  as  adulterated,  in 
the  strictest  sense  of  the  word ;  nevertheless  they  are  frequently  so  pronounced 
by  chemists,  who,  in  the  general  work  of  routine,  are  often  satisfied  with  a  most 
superficial  examination,  and  regard  dextrorotation  or  high  ash  content  as  cer- 
tain evidence  of  adulteration. 

Tliere  is  a  test  which  may  be  applied  with  considerable  safety. 
Algarroba  honey  granulates  rapidly  and  pure  honeydew  honey  does 
not ;  it  has  been  found  by  analysis  that  mixtures  which  granulate  are 
as  a  rule  of  such  a  chemical  composition  that  the}^  may  be  sold  as 
honey.  The  flavor  and  color  may  be  characteristic  of  honeydew 
honey  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  the  mixture  contains  enough  floral 
honey  to  be  sold  as  such. 

The  sugar-cane  leafhopper  was  first  collected  on  the  islands  by  Dr. 
R.  C.  L.  Perkins,  now  connected  with  the  Hawaiian  Sugar  Planters' 
Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  in  1900,"  and  by  February  or 
March  of  1903  had  "  appeared  generally  throughout  the  cane  fields 
of  Hawaii  in  numbers  sufficient  to  prove  a  serious  check  to  the  growth 
of  the  cane."  ^'  For  several  years  the  work  of  this  insect  caused  a  loss 
of  about  $3,000,000  annualh^  ^  to  the  planters,  and  naturally  they  were 
anxious  that  something  be  done  to  stop  this  heavy  loss.  By  various 
means  the  leafhopper  has  been  brought  under  control  until  to-day 
it  is  not  abiuidant  enough  to  hinder  the  growth  of  the  plants,  "  and 
plantations  that  were  to  a  certain  extent  abandoned  are  again  pro- 
ducing heavy  crops  of  sugar."  '^ 

During  (he  time  spent  on  the  islands  the  author  saw  no  sugar-cane 
fields  that  were  seemingh'  injured  b}^  the  leafhopper,  but,  on  the  other 

hand,  there  were  no  cane  fields  examined  that  did  not  contain  many 

» 

oThe  Leaf-IIopper  of  the  Sugar  Cane,  by  R.  C.  L.  Perkins.  Bulletin  No.  1, 
Division  of  Entomology,  lioard  of  Conunissioners  of  Agriculture  and  Forestry, 
Territory  of  Hawaii,  V.HV.i. 

^  The  Sugar  Cane  I.eaf-IIopiicr  in  Hawaii,  by  I  >.  U.  N'.iii  l>inc.  linllctin  No.  .5, 
Hawaii  Agricultural  Experiment   Stati..u.  ISMM. 

'^  Ifeport  of  the  (Jovernor  of  Hawaii  to  the  Secretary  of  the  Interior  for  the 
fiscal  year  ending  June  30,  11M)7,  p.  22. 

<^  Ibid. 


A    BRIEF    SURVEY    OF    HAWAIIAN    BEE    KEEPING.  53 

leaf  hoppers.  The  fact  that  the  leaf  hopper  is  not  doing  damage 
enough  to  hinder  cane  raising  does  not  signify  that  it  has  disap- 
peared, nor  is  there  any  biologic  reason  for  believing  that  it  will,  while 
cane  is  grown,  unless  some  entirely  new  methods  of  fighting  it  are 
found.  The  fact  that  -iOO  tons  «  of  honeydew  are  produced  annually 
from  this  source  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  only  a  limited  amount  of  the 
cane  area  is  accessible  to  bees  is  a  certain  indication  of  the  untold 
millions  of  these  insects  which  still  exist. 

The  leaflioppers  exude  a  sweet,  gummy  substance  on  the  leaves  of 
the  cane  and  the  honey  bees  work  on  this  eagerly.  However,  where 
bees  have  access  to  both  honeydew  and  floral  nectar,  they  prefer  the 
nectar  to  a  marked  degree.  '\Alien  algarroba  begins  to  bloom  the 
honey  stored  becomes  noticeably  whiter. 

In  view  of  the  fact  that  honeydew  honey  has  the  taste  and  color  of 
common  molasses,  it  has  been  suggested  that  probably  this  product  is 
gathered  by  the  bees  from  the  sugar  mills  which  are  so  numerous  on 
the  islands.  The  writer  visited  several  such  mills  located  near  apia- 
ries on  days  when  bees  Avere  actively  flying.  Xo  bees  were  to  be  seen 
anywhere  around  the  mill.  If  bees  actually  did  come  to  the  mill 
after  sweets,  the}^  would  become  a  serious  nuisance  to  the  workmen. 
^Ali}'  they  do  not  is  something  of  a  mystery  to  the  writer,  but  he  can 
vouch  for  the  fact  that  he  saw  no  mills  screened  to  keep  bees  out,  nor 
did  he  see  any  bees  at  work  in  the  mill  or  even  on  the  pile  of  sweet 
refuse   ("  mud  cake  ")   outside. 

Molasses  is  used  quite  extensively  for  feeding  cattle  on  the  islands. 
It  is  poured  out  in  troughs  or  half  barrels  where  the  cattle  can  get  it 
easily,  and  frequently  these  are  located  near  apiaries.  Many  of  these 
were  examined  as  the  writer  went  about  among  the  apiaries,  and  in 
not  a  single  instance  did  he  ever  see  a  bee  at  work  on  the  molasses. 
In  some  cases  these  feeding  troughs  are  as  near  as  a  quarter  of  a  mile 
to  apiaries.  A  dairyman  near  Waimea.  Kauai,  whose  trough  (PI.  IX, 
fig.  2)  is  located  not  a  quarter  of  a  mile  from  a  large  apiary,  informed 
the  writer  that  he  had  ncA'er  seen  bees  working  on  the  molasses.  Ob- 
vioush\  Hawaiian  honeydew  honey  does  not  come  from  this  source. 

Extra-floral  plant  honeydew. — The  situation  in  Hawaii  as  regards 
sources  of  honey  is  made  still  more  complicated  and  interesting  by  the 
fact  that  the  hau  tree  {Parithim  tiliaceum)  has  nectaries  on  its  leaves 
which  secrete  a  honeydew.  These  are  located  on  the  veins  of  the 
leaves  near  the  stem  and  are  one,  three,  or  five  in  number.  Small 
drops  of  honeydew  may  frequently  be  seen  on  these  spots.  It  is  in- 
teresting to  note  that  these  extra-floral  nectaries  are  jDresent  on  the 
outside  of  the  calyx  of  the  flowers.  There  is  apparently  no  true  floral 
nectary. 

oFive  linudrecl  tons  in   1908, 


54  MISCELLANEOUS   PAPERS   ON    APICULTURE. 

The  hail  tree  is  used  quite  extensively  as  a  hedge,  and  grows  from 
20  to  30  feet  high  (PL  X,  fig.  1).  It  is  doubtful  whether  this  is  the 
source  of  any  great  percentage  of  the  honeydew  honey,  but  the  fact 
that  it  is  present  makes  it  still  more  diflicult  to  analyze  the  bee-keep- 
ing situation  on  the  islands. 

INTRODUCTION  OF  HONEY  PLANTS. 

In  addition  to  the  nectar-secreting  plants  now  found  on  the  islands, 
either  as  native  plants  or  as  recently  introduced,  the  bee  keepers  are 
anxious  that  other  good  honey-producing  plants  be  introduced  to 
increase  still  more  the  amount  of  floral  honey.  As  before  stated, 
bees  show  a  marked  preference  for  floral  nectar  over  honeydew. 
There  is  on  the  islands  a  great  deal  of  land  which  is  not  only  not 
cultivated  at  present,  but  which,  from  its  rough  character,  can  never 
'be  cultivated.  There  is  doubtless  an  opportunity  for  the  introduction 
of  some  honey  plants  to  the  mountainous  regions,  Avhere  they  would 
not  interfere  with  cultivated  crops  or  grow  on  land  of  value  for  any 
other  purpose. 

From  the  sad  experiences  in  plant  introductions  on  the  islands,  it 
will  be  well  to  watch  any  new  honey-plant  introductions  very  care- 
fully. Lantana,  which  is  used  so  much  as  a  greenhouse  plant  on  the 
mainland,  was  introduced  a  few  years  ago.  It  soon  escaped  from  the 
greenhouse,  however,  and  found  in  the  climate  of  the  islands  the 
proper  conditions  for  rank  rapid  growth.  It  spread  to  all  the  islands 
and  forms  dense  jungles  10  feet  or  more  in  height,  through  which  it 
is  impossible  to  pass  without  cutting  a  path  (PI.  YIII,  fig.  2).  Va- 
rious methods  are  being  tried  with  a  vicAv  to  exterminating  this  pest, 
but  to-day  there  is  still  plenty  of  lantana.  The  cost  of  clearing  a 
lantana  thicket  for  cultivation  is  about  $10  an  acre.  Lantana  secretes 
nectar,  but  that  is  the  only  good  thing  which  can  be  said  for  it.  It 
was,  of  course,  not  introduced  for  its  honey,  but  this  experience 
should  make  the  bee  keepers  cautious  about  what  plants  the}"  bring 
in.  The  sages  of  California  are  now  being  tried,  as  well  as  various 
kinds  of  mangroves. 

WAX   PRODUCTION. 

The  price  of  honey  fluctuates  relatively  much  more  than  that  of 
beeswax.  On  account  of  the  fact  that  Hawaiian  honey  has  been  sell- 
ing for  a  low  price  and  also  because  of  the  peculiar  character  of  most 
of  the  honey,  the  bee  keepers  of  the  islands  are  desirous  of  converting 
their  honey  into  w^ax,  if  it  can  be  done,  even  at  no  great  profit.  The 
long  shipment  necessary  to  get  their  honey  to  market  means  more  or 
less  loss  by  leakage  and  heavy  freight.     AVax  does  not  lose  anything 


Bui.  75,  Pt.  V,  Bureau  of  Entomology,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 


Plate  X. 


Fig.  1.— Hau  Hedge.    (Original.) 


Fig.  2— a  Hive  Set  Up  in  Cans  to  Keep  Out 
Ants.    (Original.) 


A    BRIEF    SURVEY    OF    HAWAIIAN    BEE    KEEPING.  55 

in  transit,  and  naturally  also  wax  weighs  much  less  than  an  amount 
of  honey  of  equal  money  value,  and  the  freight  would  be  very  much 
reduced. 

^\lien  the  author  arrived  on  the  islands  one  of  the  first  questions 
asked  him  was  how  to  bring  about  a  production  of  more  wax  and 
less  or  even  practically  no  honey.  After  getting  the  available  data, 
which  were  freely  given,  a  method  was  suggested  which  promises  to 
give  some  results,  if  we  may  judge  by  results  obtained  in  some  experi- 
ments conducted  in  the  short  time  which  could  be  spent  in  Hawaii. 
Before  outlining  this  proposed  method  it  will  be  well  to  review  the 
basis  for  the  recommendations. 

It  is  a  well-known  fact  among  bee  keepers  that  at  the  time  a  swarm 
is  hived  the  activity  of  the  inmates  of  the  new  home  is  at  its  height. 
The  bees  not  only  collect  nectar  with  great  vigor,  but,  there  being  no 
wax  in  the  hive  under  natural  conditions,  the  wax  secreters  become 
very  active  and  in  a  marvelously  short  time  the  hive  is  supplied  with 
combs.  It  is  also  true,  of  course,  that  wax  is  secreted  at  any  time 
during  the  active  season  when  it  is  necessary  that  more  combs  be  built 
to  accommodate  brood  or  stores,  provided,  of  course,  that  there  is 
room.  If  a  comb  is  removed  from  the  center  of  the  brood  chamber 
or  from  the  super,  it  is  replaced  as  needed,  but,  as  a  rule,  not  so  rap- 
idly. The  rapidity  of  the  honey  flow  influences  this  wax  secretion 
greatly. 

The  amount  of  honey  consumed  in  the  secretion  of  a  pound  of  wax 
is  a  much-debated  question  among  students  of  bees,  the  various  esti- 
mates ranging  all  the  way  from  2  to  20  pounds.  There  seems  to  be 
little  hope  at  present  of  arriving  at  anything  definite  on  this  question, 
and  the  author  is  strongly  inclined  to  the  belief  that  the  reason  for 
this  great  variation  in  estimates  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  same 
amount  of  honey  is  not  always  needed  to  bring  about  a  desired  result. 
It  would  be  bootless,  therefore,  to  pay  any  attention  to  this  phase 
of  the  question  in  trying  to  get  a  method  of  wax  production.  Syl- 
viac,  in  a  series  of  articles  in  L'Apiculteur  for  1901,  offers  evidence 
that  the  amount  of  honey  consumed  in  secreting  a  pound  of  wax  is 
least  following  swarming,  and  this  quite  coincides  with  the  fact  that 
wax  building  is  most  rapid  at  that  time. 

In  dealing  with  wax  secretion  on  a  commercial  basis,  data  must  be 
drawn  from  the  receipts  per  colony  under  different  methods  of  man- 
agement. The  actual  consumption  of  honey  becomes  of  minor  im- 
portance. It  was  learned  that  the  average  annual  return  per  colony, 
after  deducting  freight  charges,  leakage,  and  other  expenses  incurred 
after  the  honey  leaves  the  apiary,  would  not  exceed  $2.50.  The  hives 
are  on  an  average  two  stories  high  during  the  entire  year  and,  during 
the  height  of  the  honey  flow,  are  often  higher.     All  figuring  was 


5()  MISCELLANEOUS   PAPERS   ON    APICULTURE. 

done  on  a  basis  of  two-story  colonies.  The  Avax  m  such  a  hive 
weighs  over  G  pounds,"  averaging  in  vahie  $1.80,  Hawaiian  wax  being 
of  the  finest  quality. 

As  additional  data,  it  was  learned  that  it  is  possible  to  increase  the 
number  of  colonies  very  rapidly.  In  one  renuirkable  case  reported, 
20  colonies  were  increased  to  4'20  in  eight  months.  This  fact  show^s 
that  a  colony  of  bees  can  build  up  very  rapidly  under  the  conditions 
existing  on  the  islands.  It  must  also  be  remembered  that  in  cane  sec- 
tions there  is  practically  no  stopping  of  the  honey  flow. 

In  view  of  all  these  facts  it  was  obvious  that  if  the  wax  be  taken 
from  each  colony  it  will  form  a  good  beginning  in  the  annual  return 
from  a  colony.  If,  then,  the  colony  is  in  as  good  shape  in  a  year's 
time  as  it  was  when  the  wax  was  removed,  there  will  be  honey  enough 
stored  to  make  the  annual  money  return  higher  than  if  the  colony  had 
been  run  for  honey  alone. 

The  method  recommended  is  to  shake  the  colony  onto  starters  of 
foundation.  The  brood  is  placed  over  another  colony  to  develop  so 
that  it  may  not  be  lost;  the  honey  is  to  be  extracted.  By  dividing  the 
apiary  into  two  parts,  one-half  may  be  shaken  and  the  brood  piled  on 
the  other  half.  These  in  turn  may  be  shaken  in  three  weeks  or 
more  and  their  brood  added  to  the  colonies  shaken  at  first.  This 
manipulation  is  identical  with  the  shaking  in  treating  for  bee  dis- 
ease. Similar  methods  are  often  employed  in  honey  producing  to 
prevent  swarming  and  to  cause  bees  to  work  in  the  supers.  In  the 
present  instance,  however,  there  is  an  entirely  different  reason  for 
the  i^ractice. 

In  the  trial  made  with  a  view  to  wax  production,  a  surprising 
showing  was  made,  and  it  seemed  obvious  that  the  operation  could 
be  repeated  in  not  more  than  three  months'  time,  and  probably  less. 
If  this  be  true,  then  there  will  be  removed  $1.80  w^orth  of  wax  or  more 
at  each  shaking,  which  means  a  considerable  gain. 

Xo  positive  statements  of  results  can  be  made  until  the  method  has 
stood  trial  for  a  time.  If  this  plan  serves  the  purpose  in  Hawaii,  it 
will  also  be  valuable  in  other  regions  where  there  is  a  heavy  honey 
flow  for  a  long  time. 

DISEASE   SURVEY. 

The  bee  keepers  of  the  islands  were  very  anxious  to  learn  whether 
or  not  they  had  any  brood  disease  among  their  bees.  They  were  quite 
certain  that  there  was  none,  but  desired  this  opinion  to  be  confirmed. 
For  this  reason  the  apiaries  visited  were  carefully  examined  by  the 
author  and  absolutely  no  trace  of  any  known  infectious  disease  wals 

«  Since  this  was  written  the  writer  has  received  a  report,  dated  May  19,  1908, 
on  this  series  of  experiments,  sliowinj:  that  S.SS  pounds  were  extracted  from 
20  frames,  this  being  tlie  actual  average  in  an  apiary  of  120  colonies. 


A    BRIEF    SURVEY    OF    HAWAIIAN    BEE    KEEPING.  57 

found.  In  view  of  the  fact  that  a  brood  disease  would  spread  rapidly 
in  that  climate,  the  bee  men  may  consider  themselves  extremely  fortu- 
nate. 

Some  time  ago  Mr.  D.  L.  Van  Dine  sent  to  the  Bureau  of  Ento- 
molog}'  a  sample  of  brood  which  had  died,  and  it  was  reported  that 
there  had  been  considerable  loss  on  this  account.  There  was  no  indi- 
cation of  any  infectious  disease  in  the  sample,  and  before  another  sam- 
ple could  be  obtained  the  trouble  had  disappeared.  Of  this  trouble 
Mr.  Van  Dine  wrote,  under  date  of  April  27,  1906 : 

About  tlie  1st  of  January  it  began  and  appeared  simultaneously  in  several  of 

the  apiaries  of  the Honey  Company.     In  the  majority  of  cases  [of  hives 

having  this  trouble]  from  one-half  to  three-fourths  of  the  brood  died  when  the 
larvae  were  nearly  full  grown  or  after  transforming  to  the  pupje.  The  sunken 
caps  and  black  color  resembled  the  descriptions  of  foul  brood,  but  there  was  no 
odor  or  other  symptoms.  Many  of  the  pupae  showed  signs  of  life  after  turning 
nearly  black  and  some  adults  emerged  before  dying  *  *  *.  As  a  precaution  the 
bees  were  fed  medicated  sirup,  but  I  am  of  the  opinion  that  the  trouble  is  not  an 
infectious  disease,  but  due  to  improper  food.  When  the  algarroba,  our  principal 
honey  tree,  had  ceased  to  flower  the  main  source  of  pollen  was  gone,  but  the  bees 
could  still  get  an  abundance  of  honey  from  the  sugar  cane.  The  bee  bread  was 
scanty,  very  dark  in  color,  and  rather  hard.  I  have  not  been  able  to  trace  out 
where  they  got  it.  Probably  from  various  weeds  *  *  *.  The  algarroba  is 
coming  in  flower  again  and  it  is  a  fact  that  the  trouble  is  fast  disappearing, 
and  I  am  inclined  to  believe  that  it  was  due  to  the  food  conditions  I  men- 
tioned    *     *     *. 

On  the  island  of  Kauai  the  same  trouble  appeared  at  the  same  time  as  on  this 
island  and  the  conditions  are  exactly  the  same.  On  the  island  of  Molokai  the 
trouble  did  not  occur  and  there  they  have  no  sugar  cane  and  when  the  honey 
plants  failed  the  queens  ceased  to  lay  and  no  outbreak  of  the  disease  occurred. 

Under  date  of  June  5.  1906,  he  wrote : 

For  a  time  after  the  bees  began  to  bring  in  pollen  in  abundance  the  trouble 
seemed  to  disappear,  but  just  now  in  certain  colonies  it  is  as  serious  as  ever. 
This  seems  to  contradict  the  idea  that  the  trouble  is  due  to  food  conditions. 

T^liile  the  author  was  on  the  islands  only  one  case  was  seen  which 
resembled  what  was  described  in  1906.  This  was  in  an  apiary  on  the 
island  of  Kauai.  The  dead  larvse  in  no  way  resembled  those  which 
die  of  American  foul  brood  or  European  foul  brood.  There  is  no  in- 
dication that  the  trouble  is  contagious,  and  the  dead  larvae  resembled 
certain  phases  of  what  is  generally  called  '*  pickle  brood.'' 

The  bee  keepers  are  anxious  that  no  disease  be  allowed  to  enter  their 
territory,  and  at  the  request  of  the  Hawaiian  Bee  Keepers'  Associa- 
tion the  author  drew  up  a  letter  of  recommendation  which  is  here 
given  : 

For  the  information  of  your  association  in  formulating  proposed  regulations 
relative  to  the  establishment  of  an  effective  quarantine  against  the  various  dis- 
eases of  the  bee.  I  take  pleasure  in  presenting  the  following  statements  as  my 
opinion  concerning  the  questions  involved. 
78013°— Bull.  7.5—11 5 


58  MISCELLANEOUS   PAPERS   ON    APICULTURE. 

3.  Th<  iKitiirr  of  the  disra.scs. — There  are  now  recoj^nized  two  diseases,  viru- 
lent and  contajrious  in  their  cliaracter,  which  attaclv  the  hrood  of  the  bee. 
These  are  know^i  as  American  fonl  lu'ood  and  Enropean  foul  hrood.  It  is  defi- 
nitely known  that  Anierican  f<Mil  hrood  is  caused  by  a  bacterium,  Bacillus 
Uirr<i\  and  from  the  symptoms  and  behavior  of  European  fonl  brood  it  is  almost 
certain  that  the  latter  disease  is  likewise  caused  by  a  micro-organism.  There 
are  other  diseases  recognizetl  by  bee  keepers,  but  it  is  not  known  that  they  are 
infectious. 

2.  Methods  of  sjucml. — It  is  known  that  both  diseases  mentioned  (European 
foul  brood  and  American  foul  brood)  are  transmitted  in  the  following  man- 
ners: 

(«)    By  bees   from   healthy  colonies  robbing  the  hives  of  diseased  colonies. 

(h)  By  the  bee  keeper  feeding  honey  from  diseased  colonies,  as  in  the  case 
of  feeding  for  winter  stores  in  the  colder  parts  of  the  mainland. 

(c)  By  the  accidental  feeding  of  honey  from  diseased  colonies,  which  has 
been  extracted  and  sold  in  bottles  or  other  containers.  (This  applies  to  partly 
empty  honey  bottles  or  cans  which  may  be  thrown  out  carelessly  where  bees  can 
gain  access  to  them.) 

{(1)  By  the  introduction  of  queens  taken  from  ai>iaries  in  wliich  disease  is 
present  and  which  are  shipped  in  cages  stocked  with  candy  made  from  infected 
honey. 

It  will  be  obvious  from  the  local  conditions  that  (&)  does  not  apply  to  the 
Hawaiian  Islands.  It  is  doubtless  true  also  that  (a)  does  not  apply.  I  can  not 
say  positively  that  neither  disease  is  i)resent  in  the  Territory,  but  it  is  almost 
certain  that  they  are  not. 

Means  of  itrcvvuting  ihc  introduction  of  disease  to  the  Ilaicaiian  Islands. — As 
an  innnediate  action,  it  is  desirable  that  all  queens  which  are  shipped  to  the 
Territory  be  removed  from  the  cages  in  which  they  arrive  and  be  introduced  to 
colonies  from  a  clean  cage  containing  candy  made  from  honey  free  from  disease 
organisms.  This  precaution,  which  is  a  very  simple  operation,  will  be  a  very 
good  assurance  that  disease  will  not  be  brought  to  your  islands  with  imported 
queens. 

It  is  desirable  that  as  soon  as  possible  a  quarantine  apiary  be  established,  to 
which  all  importtnl  queens  shall  be  introduced.  After  two  months'  time,  if  the 
colonies  to  which  the  (pieens  are  introduced  are  free  from  disease,  the  queens 
may  be  sent  to  the  owner  with  perfect  safety. 

It  is  above  all  desirable  that  no  honey  of  any  kind  shall  be  shipped  to  your 
islands  unless  it  comes  from  healthy  colonies  and  is  accompanied  by  a  certifi- 
cate of  a  qualified  inspector  of  apiaries  that  such  is  the  case.  This  precaution 
is  of  much  more  importance  than  those  against  infection  through  importation  of 
(pieens.  The  bee  keeper  who  imports  queens  would  probably  soon  recognize 
disease  if  it  aiipeared  in  a  colony  containing  a  choice  imported  queen,  but  if 
disease  is  brought  in  with  honey  it  might  gain  a  strong  foothold  before  its  dis- 
covery. This  provision  will  not  constitute  a  i)rohibition  of  the  importation  of 
honey,  since  on  the  mainland  there  are  now  about  55  qualified  apiarian 
inspectors. 

On  September  2,  1908,  the  Ik)ard  of  Commissioners  of  Agriculture 
and  Forestry  of  the  Territory  of  ITa^vaii  passed  re<ruhitions  pertain- 
ing to  the  imj)ortation  and  inspection  of  honey  hees  and  honey,  which 
placed  restrictions  on  such  importations  for  the  purpose  of  prevent- 
ing the  introchiction  of  contagious  diseases. 


U.  S.  D.  A.,  B.  E.  Bui.  75,  Part  VI.  A.,  January  25,  1909. 

MISCELLANEOUS  PAPERS  ON  APICULTURE. 


THE    STATUS    OF   APICULTURE   IN   THE   UNITED    STATES. 

By  E.  F.  Phillips,  Ph.  D., 
In  Charge  of  Apiculture. 

INTRODUCTION. 

Few  persons  realize  the  magnitude,  importance,  and  possibilities 
of  the  present  bee-keeping  industry  in  the  United  States.  Those 
who  are  conversant  with  the  pursuit,  and  even  those  who  are  exten- 
sively engaged  in  it,  generally  fail  to  comprehend  what  an  important 
factor  in  the  agriculture  of  "the  country  apiculture  is  as  a  whole,  or 
how  much  the  honey  bee,  by  collecting  nectar  and  storing  it  to 
produce  a  commercial  product,  is  instrumental  in  saving  our  resources. 
Although  the  total  value  of  bee  products  is  small  as  compared  with 
the  value  of  the  products  of  many  other  branches  of  agriculture,  it 
nevertheless  has  an  importance  which  should  not  be  overlooked. 
The  object  of  this  paper  is  to  review  the  present  status  of  the  industry 
with  a  view  to  pointing  out  where  we  may  look  for  advancement. 

Few  rural  pursuits  have  made  greater  progress  during  the  past 
half  century  than  has  this  one.  Before  that  time  the  bees  of  this 
country  were  kept  in  box  hives,  and  as  a  result  the  amiual  average 
crop  of  honey  per  colony  was  small.  In  addition  to  this  handicap  in 
not  being  able  to  manipulate  the  bees  as  was  needed,  bee  keepers 
generally  lacked  a  knowledge  of  the  methods  of  caring  for  them.  With 
the  invention  of  movable-frame  hives  by  Langstroth  in  1851  it  became 
possible  to  care  for  bees  properly  and  to  manipulate  in  such  a  way 
as  to  get  the  best  crop.  As  the  use  of  this  type  of  hive  and  of  the 
honey  extractor  became  general,  bee  keepers  have  become  better 
educated  in  modern  methods  of  manipulation,  and  the  industry  has 
advanced  from  a  negligible  quantity  to  its  present  important  place 
in  agriculture. 

In  the  vast  majority  of  cases  bee  keeping  is  not  the  principal  occu- 
pation, but  is  carried  on  in  conjunction  with  some  other  business. 

59 


60  MISCELLANEOUS   PAPERS   ON    APICULTURE. 

According  to  the  census  of  1900  the  average  number  of  colonies  on 
farms  reporting  them  was  5.<S106,  valued  at  $14.40 — a  very  small 
investment.  In  some  recent  work  of  this  Bureau"  it  has  been 
fountl  that  in  the  State  of  Massachusetts  the  average  number  of 
colonies  reported  was  5.5  per  bee  keeper.  This  last  figure  should  not 
be  taken  as  an  index  to  the  condition  in  tlie  whole  country,  for  as 
one  goes  farther  west  the  holdings  are  found  to  be  larger.  In  Cali- 
fornia, for  example,  while  there  are  some  small  apiaries,  the  majority 
are  quite  large,  and  the  average  is  several  times  that  of  Massachusetts. 
The  number  taken  from  the  census  can  scarcely  be  accepted  as 
correct. 

The  number  of  men  who  rely  solely  on  the  production  of  honey 
and  wax  for  a  livelihood  is  rather  small,  and  most  of  the  extensive 
producers  of  the  West  carry  on  some  other  business,  at  least  for  the 
part  of  the  year  when  the  bees  are  less  active.  The  reason  for  this 
is  found  in  the  nature  of  the  industry.  Any  location  is  limited  as  to 
the  number  of  colonies  of  bees  which  it  will  support,  and  in  con- 
sequence a  bee  keeper  must  either  carry  on  some  other  business  or 
establish  numerous  outapiaries  to  enable  him  to  keep  bees  enough 
to  make  it  an  occupation  which  will  support  him.  Since  the  estab- 
lishment of  outapiaries  is  attended  with  certain  disadvantages,  it 
usually  follows  that  bee  keeping  becomes^  a  minor  part  of  a  man's 
occupation  or  even  a  side  line. 

Then,  too,  bee  keeping  is  taken  up  by  many  as  a  recreation  or  a 
subject  of  nature  study.  Such  persons  do  not  wish  to  make  it  their 
sole  or  main  occupation.  Many  farmers  also  keep  a  few  colonies  of 
bees  and  add  to  their  income  to  some  extent  in  that  way.  It  is 
obvious  that  bee  keeping  must  continue  to  be  an  avocation  in  the 
majority  of  cases. 

This  brings  up  for  consideration  a  question  which  has  been  much 
discussed  by  those  interested  in  bringing  about  an  advance  in  the 
industr}':  Shall  an  attempt  be  made  to  increase  the  number  of  bee 
keepers,  or  to  make  better  ones  of  a  smaller  number?  Bee  keepers 
who  follow  the  pursuit  on  a  commercial  scale  are  usuallv  anxious 
that  there  be  no  increase  in  the  number  engaged  in  the  business, 
])ut  rather  a  decrease,  with  an  accompanying  advance  in  the  pro- 
ficiency of  those  so  engaged.  This  desire  is  not  wholly  selfish,  for 
unless  the  increase  is  directly  in  the  territory  of  the  individual  his  crop 
is  not  affected.  ' 

It  frequently  happens  that  a  local  market  is  ruined,  temporarily 
at  least,  by  some  uninformed  bee  kee])er  who  keeps  a  few  colonies 
and  sells  a  poor  grade  of   honey  for  a  ridiculously  low  price,  thus 


"Gates,  Burton  N.— Bee  Keeping  in  Massachusetts.     Bulletin  No.  75,  Part  VII, 
Bureau  of  Entomology,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture.    (In  preparation.) 


STATUS   OF    APICULTURE    IX    UNITED    STATES.  61 

making  it  almost  impossible  for  the  up-to-date  bee  keeper  to  sell 
his  honey  for  what  it  is  worth  in  the  same  community.  This  con- 
dition of  affairs  woidd  not  occur  were  it  not  for  the  fact  that,  for 
table  use  at  least,  honey  does  not  rank  as  a  necessity,  and  the  usual 
causes  for  changes  in  market  price  do  not  operate  so  completely  as 
is  the  case  \vith  other  commodities. 

The  main  objection  to  numerous  small  bee  keepers,  rather  than 
fewer  and  more  expert  ones  deeply  engaged  in  the  industry,  is,  that 
when  the  larger  number  is  interested  it  can  not  be  hoped  that  all  ^\-ill 
become  proficient.  Under  normal  circumstances  tliis  matters  little, 
since  anyone  has  a  right  to  neglect  liis  bees  if  he  so  desires,  but  when 
some  contagious  disease  is  present  in  a  region  tliis  becomes  a  serious 
matter.  The  expert  bee  keeper  can  not  hope  to  rid  his  bees  of  dis- 
ease if  there  are  a  great  many  unqualified  bee  keepers  in  liis  neighbor- 
hood. Under  such  a  circumstance — wliich  unfortunately  is  becom- 
ing quite  general  in  tliis  country — the  negligent  bee  keeper  keeps 
property  which,  if  diseased,  constitutes  a  nuisance,  and  is  a  constant 
menace  to  the  progressive  man,  for  it  is  impossible  to  tell  when 
neglected  colonies  ma}'  become  infected. 

If  progress  is  to  be  made  toward  getting  the  largest  possible  honey 
crop  from  the  United  States,  it  ^vill  hardly  be  done  by  making  bee 
keepers  who  own  an  average  of  5  colonies.  It  must  be  done  by  pro- 
gressive bee  keepei^  financially  interested  to  an  extent  sufficient  to 
compel  them  to  combat  disease  and  to  do  their  utmost  to  get  the 
entire  crop.  TVe  may  not  hope  to  attain  tliis  ultimate  condition, 
but  an  effort  might  be  made  to  discourage  negligent  and  indifferent 
bee  keeping. 

In  spite  of  the  fact  that  bee  keeping  is  the  sole  occupation  of  but 
few,  it  nevertheless  commands  attention  in  that  it  adds  considerably 
to  the  resources  of  the  country  and  increases  the  income  of  thousands 
of  people.  The  possibilities  for  its  increase  are  great,  and  the  ad- 
vancement of  tliis  vocation  is  a  worthy  object  as  aiming  to  save  for 
human  use  a  resource  which  is  now  sa  generally  wasted. 

SCOPE  OF  THE  INDUSTRY. 

It  is  veiy  difficult  to  estimate  accurately  the  annual  value  of  the 
products  of  the  apiary,  but  from  various  sources  of  information  it  is 
reasonable  to  suppose  that  the  value  of  the  honey  produced  annually 
in  the  United  States  is  on  the  average  about  S20,000,000  and  of  wax 
about  82,000,000.  Since  the  hone}'  harvest  depends  so  completely 
on  various  climatic  conditions  affecting  the  secretion  of  nectar,  it  is 
obvious  that  there  is  an  enormous  variation  in  the  annual  yield. 

As  nearly  as  can  be  learned,  the  number  of  sections  for  comb  honey 
manufactured  annually  by  supply  dealers  is  between  60,000,000  and 


62 


MISCELLANEOUS    PAPERS   OX    APICULTURE. 


7.5, 000, ()()(),  and  tliat  ma>'  bo  considered  as  a  fair  estimate  of  the  aver- 
age number  of  jxmnds  of  com!)  lioney  produced  in  the  United  States, 
since  relatively  few  sections  are  exported.  Extracted  honey  is  pro- 
duced more  extensiveh',  and  it  is  safe  to  say  that  the  annual  crop  is 
three  or  four  times  that  of  comb  honey.  Taking  into  consicU^ration 
also  the  chunk  honey  .sold  and  the  honey  not  marketed  but  used  in 
home  ccmsumption,  the  estimate  of  $20,000,000  is  none  too  high. 

Tt  may  be  of  interest  to  compare  the  data  of  various  years  given 
by  the  census.  Table  1  gives  the  amount  of  honey  and  wax,  with  the 
ratio  between  them.  It  is  very  interesting  to  note  a  reported  in- 
crea.se  in  the  ratio  of  honey  to  wax  produced  as  the  use  of  the  honey 
extractor  has  Ixrome  more  general. 

Table  I. — Vrodudion  of  honey  and  wax  in  the  United  States,  1S40-1900. 


Census  of— 

Honey. 

Wax. 

Ratio  of 

honey  to 

wax. 

1840 

Pounds. 

PoundH. 
628, 303 

1850 

0  14,853,790 
23,366,357 
14,  702.  815 
25,743,308 
63,897,327 
61.196,160 

1860 

1,322,787 
631,129 
l,ia5.689 
1,166,.'588 
1,765.315 

17.7:1 
23.3:1 
23. 3:1 
54.  8:1 
34. 7:1 

1870 

1880 

1890. 

1900 

"  Beeswax  and  honev. 


The  last  census,  that  of  1900,  recording  crop  data  for  1S99,  gives  the 


following : 

Total  number  of  farms  reported  in  censu.s 

Number  of  farms  reporting  bees 

Percentage  of  total 

Number  of  colonies,  June  1,  1900 

Average  number  per  farm  reporting  l^ees 

Value  of  bees 

Pounds  of  honey  in  1899 

Pounds  of  wax  in  1899 

Value  of  honey  and  wax  in  1899 

Number  of  farms  of  white  farmers  reporting  bees 

Percentage  of  all  farms  of  white  farmers 

Number  of  farms  of  colored  farmers  reporting  bees 

Percentage  of  all  farms  of  colored  farmers 

Average  crop  j)er  farm  rej)orting  bees: 

Honey 

Wax 

Average  value  of  honey  and  wax  ])er  farm  reporting  b 

Average  value  of  bees  j)er  farm  reporting 

Average  value  of  bees  per  colony 

Average  pounds  of  honey  per  colony 

Average  pounds  of  wax  i)er  colony 

Average  value  of  lioncy  and  wax  ]>cr  colony 


o,  739,  657 

707,  261 

12. 

4, 109,  626 


3 
8106 


})ounds. . 
...d...... 


$10, 186,  513 

61, 196, 160 

1,  765,  315 

$6,  664,  904 

677,  985 

13.6 

29,  276 

3.8 

86.5 

2.5 

$9.42 

$14.  40 

$2.48 

14.9 

.43 

$1.  62 


STATUS  OF  APICULTURE  IX  UNITED  STATES. 

Tables  II  and  III  "^  give  additional  data  on  distribution. 


63 


Table  II. — Xumber  and  value  ofsuarms^  of  bees,  June  1,  1900,  on  farms  and  ranges,  by 

geographic  divisions. 


Geographic  division. 

Number  of 
farms. 

Farms 
report- 
ing bees. 

Per  cent 
of  farms 
report- 
ing bees. 

Swarms 
of  bees. 

Value  of 
bees. 

The  United  States 

5.739.657 

707. 261 

12.3 

4,109,626     $10,186,513 

North  Vtlantic 

677.506         64.110 

962, 225        151, 863 

2.196.567       233.721 

9.5 
15.8 
10.6 
13.6 
13.3 

2.0 

413.709         1.370.732 

South  Atlantic 

854.909         1.664.636 

North  Central 

1.187,856 

1.289.384 

362,381 

1,387 

3,5a5.675 

South  Central..   .                  

l.a58.166 

'242,908 

2,285 

225,100 

32.421 

46 

2.513.397 

1, 123. 647 

Alaska  and  Hawaii .                    

8,426 

1  The  word  ''swarms"  used  in  census  reix>rts  evidently  should  be  "colonies." 

Table  III. — Pounds  and  value  of  honey  and  wax  produced  on  farms  and  ranges  in  1899, 
with  averages  per  farm  reporting,  by  geographic  divisions. 


Geographic  division. 

Honey. 

Wax. 

Value  of  honey  and 
wax. 

Total. 

Average 
per  farm. 

Total. 

Average 
per  farm. 

Total         Average 
per  farm. 

The  United  States 

Pounds. 
61.196.160 

Pounds. 

Pounds. 
1.705.315 

Pounds. 

2.5     $6,664,904 

$9.42 

North  Atlantic. . 

0.855.027 
9,468,843 
20,055,502 
14,849,824 
9,870,094 
96.870 

106.9 
62.4 
85.8 
6<3.0 

304.4 
2,105.9 

1S2  S19               *>  9           801   147 

1'  50 

South  Atlantic 

379. 192 
396.604 
588,960 
216.020 
1  720 

2.5 
1.7 
2.6 
6.7 
37.4 

1.029.233 

2,353.001 

1,553,141 

920.089 

8  293 

6.78 

North  Central. 

10  07 

South  Central 

6.90 

Western 

'>8  38 

Alaska  and  Hawaii 

180.28 

■ 

Taking  the  number  of  farms  keeping  bee.s  as  the  basis,  the  five  most  important 
bee-keeping  States,  June  1,  1900,  were  Texas,  with  60,043  farms  reporting;  Kentucky, 
with  44,974;  Missouri,  with  41,14o;  North  Carolina,  with  41,051;  and  Tennes.see,  with 
38,225. 

Taking  the  number  of  swarms,  or  colonies,  of  bees  as  the  basis,  the  five  leading 
States  were  Texas,  with  392,644;  North  Carolina,  244,539;  Tennessee,  225,788;  Alabama, 
205,369;  and  Missouri,  205,110.  Of  the  States  included  in  the  series  given  first,  Texas, 
Missouri,  Tennessee,  and  North  Carolina  are  found  in  the  second. 

Taking  the  value  of  the  bees  as  the  basis  of  classification,  the  five  leading  States 
were  Texas,  with  $749,483;  New  York,  $593,784;  Pennsylvania,  $531,578;  Kentucky, 
$527,098;  and  Missouri,  $508,217. 

The  five  greatest  producers  of  honey  in  1899  were  Texas,  with  4,780,204  pounds; 
California,  3,667,738;  New  York,  3,422,497;  Missouri,  3,018,929;  and  Illinois,  2,961,080. 
California,  which  has  not  been  included  in  any  of  the  preceding  classifications,  here 
stands  second. 

Of  the  States  producing  wax,  Alabama  led  with  162,020  pounds;  Texas  was  second, 
with  159,690;  North  Carolina  third,  with  135,920;  California  fourth,  with  115,330; 
and  New  York  fifth,  with  84,075. & 

a  Twelfth  Census  of  the  United  States,  1900,  Vol.  Y,  Agriculture,  Part  I,  p.  ccxxxiii. 
&  Twelfth  Census  of  the  United    States,  1900,    Vol.  V,  Agriculture,  Part  I,  pp. 
ccxxxiii-ccxxxiv. 


64 


MISCELLANEOUS   PAPERS   ON    APICULTURE. 


It  will  bo  noticed  that  the  data  on  honey  and  wax  crops  do  not  at 
all  agree  with  the  author's  estimate  given  above.  In  the  light  of  the 
evidence  previously  given,  it  is  obvious  that  the  census  figures  are 
entirely  too  small  and  are  far  from  doing  justice  to  the  industry. 
The  other  data  are  probably  much  more  reliable.  It  is  hardly  a  fair 
test  to  compare  1000  data  as  to  the  num})er  of  bee  keepers  with  those 
of  1906,  but  it  should  be  noted  that  in  the  recent  work  of  the  Bureau 
in  Massachusetts  "  there  were  reported  2,127  bee  keepers  as  compared 
with  1,799,  the  number  given  in  the  census. 

IMPORTS    AND    EXPORTS. 

Tables  IV  to  VII  show  the  imports  and  exports  of  honey  and  wax 
through  the  ports  of  entry  of  the  United  States.  The  data  for  these 
tables  were  obtained  through  the  courtesy  of  the  Bureau  of  Statistics 
of  tliis  Department.'' 

«  Gates,  Burton  N. — Bee  Keeping  in  Massachusetts.  Bulletin  No.  75,  Part  VII, 
Bureau  of  Entomology,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture.     (In  preparation.) 

b  Tariff  schedules  on  honey  and  wax  under  the  different  acts  of  Congress  subsequent 
to  1841  are  as  follows: 


Acts  of- 


Tariff  on  honeJ^ 


TarilT  on  wax. 


August  30,  1842 
July  30,  184«.... 
March  3,  1837... 
March  2,  mil... 
July  14,  1862.... 
June  30,  1864... 
March  3,  1H83... 
October  1,  1890. 
.Vugust  27,  1894 
July  24,  1897.... 


Not  specifically  mentioned 

30  per  cent  ad  valorem 

24  per  cent  ad  valorem 

Not  specifically  mentioned 

15  cents  per  gallon 

20  cent.s  i)er  gallon. 

20  cent.s  i)er  gallon 

20  cents  i)er  gallon      

10  cents  per  gallon 

20  cents  per  gallon 


15  per  cent  ad  valorem. 
20  per  cent  ad  valorem. 
15  per  cent  ad  valorem, 
10  per  cent  ail  valorem. 
20  per  cent  ad  valorem. 
.\ot  specificallv  mentioned. 
20  per  cent  ad  Valorem. 
Free. 
Free. 
Free. 


STATUS   OF    APICULTURE   IX    UNITED    STATES. 


65 


Table  IV. — Imports  of  honey  into  the    United  States,  1901-1908,  by  countries  from 

which  consigned. 


Cuba. 


Mexico. 


Year  ending 
Jime30— 

Pounds.o 

Average 
!  in  cents. 

Percentage 

of  total 

imports       Pounds.a 

from  all 
countries. 

'  Average    ^^^f^^^ 

1901 

1902 

1903 

1904 

809,784 

131,736 

1,-565,088 

1,296,912 

1,575,768 

756,312 

$31,591 

5,807 

64,867 

42,597 

57,918 

26.9SQ 

3.9 
4.4 
4.1 
3.3 
3.7 
3.5 
3.6 
4.0 

37.0 
6.6 
45.3 
52.4 
66.1 
45.6 
43.4 
4.5.7 

727,728 

1,. 361, 052 

1,166,796 

652,404 

516,804 

724,488 

884,340 

1,045,944 

$25,6.59 
33,269 
31,697 
12,345 
10,477 
18, 107 
27,534 
37,926 

3.5 
2.4 
2.7 
1.9 
2.0 
2.5 
3.1 
3.6 

33.3 
67.8 
33.8 
26.3 

1905 

21.7 

1906 

43.7 

1907 

915,744  1      33^380 
1,162,872          46.726 

42.0 

1908 

41.1 

Santo  Domingo. 

Haiti. 

Year  ending 
June  30— 

Pounds.a 

Average 
1  in  cents. 

Percentage 
of  total 
imports 
from  all 

countries. 

'                 1  Average 

Pounds.a      Value.^     ^'^^^^ 

in  cents. 

Percentage 
of  total 
imports 
from  all 

countries. 

1901 

327,876 
160,440 
198,204 
373,212 
162,792 

$13,091 
4,853 
4,897 
8,982 
4,063 
820 
746 
1,376 

4.0 
3.0 
2.5 
2.4 
2.5 
2.9 
2.4 
2.8 

15.0 
8.0 
5.8 

15.1 
6.8 
1.7 
1.5 
1.9 

146,256         $5,086 
35,184           1,173 

255,588  ,        5,013 
58,476  j        1,273 
44,052  1            779 
81,444           1,703 

188,640          4,849 

3.5 
3.3 
2.0 
2.2 
1.8 
2.1 
2  fi 

6.7 

1902 

1.7 

1903 

7.4 

1904 

2.4 

1905          ...   . 

1.9 

1906 

27,840 
31,272 
49,068 

4.9 

1907 

8.9 

1908 

106,116           2,870  1            2.7 

4.2 

All  other  countries. 

Total. 

Year  ending  June  30— 

V 

Potmds.a      Value.b 

\x-pr5ifrp    Percentage! 

Value.b 

Average 

price  per 

pound 

in  cents. 

1901 

174,708        $8,172 
319,200         11,281 
266,676           8,926 
94,500           3,856 
&3,988          3,482 
68,568           3,782 
88,068          4,345 
179,904           9,527 

4. 7                   8  0 

2,186,352 
2,007,612 
3,4.52,352 
2.475,504 
2,383,404 
1,658,652 
2,108,064 
2,543,904 

$83,599 
56,383 

115,400 
69,053 
76,719 
50,651 
70,854 
98,425 

3.8 

1902 

3  5 

15  9 

2  8 

1903 

3.3 
4.1 
4.1 
5.5 
4.9 
5.3 

7.7 
3.8 
3.5 
4.1 
4.2 
7.1 

3.3 

1904 

2.8 

1905...                 

3.2 

1906 

3.1 

1907                            .     . 

3.4 

1908 

3.9 

a  Custom-house  returns  of  honey  are  given  in  gallons,  assumed  here  to  weigh  12  pounds. 
h  Imports  of  honey  into  the  United  States  are  subject  to  a  specific  duty. 

Values.— TYiQ  values  of  all  imported  articles,  whether  subject  to  ad  valorem  or  specific  duties  or  free 
of  duty,  are  regulated  by  the  act  of  Congress  of  June  10,  1890. 

The  actual  market  value  or  wholesale  price  of  such  merchandise  as  bought  and  sold  in  usual  wholesale 
quantities  at  the  time  of  exportation  to  the  United  States  in  the  principal  markets  of  the  country  from 
whence  imported,  and  in  the  condition  in  which  such  merchandise  is  there  bought  for  exportation  to  the 
United  States  or  consigned  to  the  United  States  for  sale,  including  the  value  of  all  cartons,  cases,  crates, 
boxes,  sacks,  and  coverings  of  any  kind,  and  all  other  costs,  charges,  and  expenses  incident  to  placing  the 
merchandise  in  condition  ready  for  shipment  to  the  United  States. 

Valuation  deceptions.— The  value  of  imported  articles  subject  to  ad  valorem  duties  is  believed  to  be 
determined  with  more  accuracy,  according  to  the  legal  method  of  valuation,  than  other  imports,  with 
si)ecific  duties  or  free,  and  exported  articles;  the  valuation  of  dutiable  imports  and  of  exports  dutiable  in 
foreign  countries  tend  to  understatement,  and  the  valuations  of  imports  that  are  free  of  duty  are  often 
inflated  for  the  purpose  of  trade  deception. 


66 


MISCELLANEOUS   PAPERS   ON    APICULTURE. 


Tahle  \.— Imports  of  hccstrax  into  the    United  States,  1901-1908,  by  countries  from 

which  consigned. 


Cuba. 

Mexico. 

Year  ending 
June  30— 

Pounds. 

Value.a 

Average 

price  per 

pound 

in  cents. 

Percentage 
of  total 
imports 
from  all 

countries. 

Pounds. 

Value.a 

Average 

priai  per 

pouiKl 

in  cents. 

Percentage 
of  total 
imports 
from  all 

countries. 

1901 

110,778       $28,5.39 
l.')7,8:}9         44,. 364 
147,917         42,3.57 
98,4.'>5         28,682 
79,926         24,006 
1.58,. 523  !       48,120 
331,942         93,702 
264,984         76,431 

2.5.8 
28.1 
28.6 
29.1 
30.0 
30.4 
28.2 
28.8 

51.8 
38.0 
30.3 
23.1 
21.4 
27.0 
36.2 
39.5 

13,446 
23,366 
162,332 
167,843 
87,943 
46.421 
47,262 
41  489 

$3,080 
5,070 
36,476 
45,673 
23,265 
13,485 
15,417 

l?l  900 

22.9 
21.7 
22.5 
27.2 
26.5 
29.0 
32.6 
32.0 

6.3 

5.7 

33.2 

39.5 

23.5 

7.9 

.5.2 

6.2 

1902 

19a3 

1C04 

19a5 

190(5 

1907 

1908 

Santo  Domingo. 

Haiti. 

Year  ending 
June  30— 

Pounds. 

Value.a 

Average 

price  per 

pound 

in  cents. 

Percentage 
of  total 
imports 
from  all 

countries. 

Pounds. 

Value.a 

Average 

price  per 

pound 

in  cents. 

Percentage 
of  total 
imports 
from  all 

countries. 

1901 

41,225 
73,364 
82,829 
80,783 
46,816 
34,052 
67,264 
55,311 

$10,241 
21,118 
21,364 
21,061 
11,193 
8,. 596 
16,941 
13,085 

24.8 
28.8 
25.8 
26.1 
23.9 
25.2 
2.5.2 
23.7 

19.3 
17.9 
16.9 
19.0 
12.5 
5.8 
7.3 
8.2 

11,286 
6,373 
25,276 
38,106 
62,547 
27,311 
48,831 
58,147 

$4,292 
3,013 
7,692 
10,359 
16,047 
7,326 
13,555 
15,379 

38.0 
47.3 
30.4 
27.2 
25.7 
26.8 
27.8 
26.4 

5  3 

1902 

1.6 

1903 

5  2 

1904 

9.0 

1905 

16  8 

190(j 

4.6 

1907 

5.3 

1908 

8.6 

All  other  countries. 

Total. 

Year  ending  June  .30— 

Pounds. 

Value.a 

Average 

price  per 

pound 

in  cents. 

Percentage 
of  total 
imports 
from  all 

countries. 

Pounds. 

Value.a 

Average 

price  per 

pound 

in  cents. 

1901 

37,038 

147,764 

70,222 

.39,981 

96,337 

.321,. 310 

421,789 

251,595 

$9,732 
42,372 
19,331 
11,103 
26,610 
90,487 
125,022 
76,584 

26.3 
28.7 
27.5 
27.8 
27.6 
28.2 
29.6 
30.4 

17.3 
36.2 
14.4 
9.4 
25.8 
54.7 
46.0 
37.5 

213,773 
408,706 
488,576 
425,168 
373,569 
587,617 
917,088 
671,526 

$55,884 
115,937 
127,220 
116,878 
101,121 
168,014 
264,637 
194,769 

26.1 

1902                                .   . 

28.4 

1903 

26.0 

1904 

27.5 

1905 

27.1 

1906 

28.6 

1907 

28.9 

1908 

29.0 

a  Imports  of  beeswax  into  the  United  States  are  free  of  duty. 

Values.— The  values  of  all  imported  articlos.  whether  subject  to  ad  valorem  or  specific  duties  or  free  of 
dutv,  are  defined  by  the  act  of  Congress  of  .Time  10,  1890,  as— 

The  actual  market  value  or  wholesule  i)ric('  of  such  merchandise  as  bought  and  sold  in  usual  whol<'saIe 
quanliti(>s  at  the  tim(>  of  e.xportation  to  the  Tnited  States  in  th(>  priiieijial  markets  of  the  country  from 
whence  inij>orted,  and  in  the  condition  in  which  such  nierehaiulise  is  there  bought  for  exportation  to  the 
Ignited  Stati'S  or  consigned  to  the  rnited  States  for  sale,  including  the  value  of  all  cartons,  cases,  crates, 
boxes.  .s;vks,  and  eovcrinizs  of  any  kind,  and  ail  other  costs,  charges,  and  exix'nses  incident  to  placing  the 
merchandise  in  condition  ready  for  shipment  to  tlie  United  States. 

Vahintion  decrptinns.  The  value  of  imported  articles  .subj(>et  to  ad  valorem  duties  is  Ix'lieved  to  be 
determined  with  more  accuracy,  iieeording  to  the  legal  metliod  of  valuation,  than  the  value  of  imports 
with  siKY-ifie  duties  or  free  of  duly,  or  the  value  of  exported  articles;  the  valuations  of  dutiable  imports 
and  of  exports  dutiable  in  foreign  cotmtries  t<'nd  to  understat<'ment,  and  the  valuations  of  imports  that 
are  free  of  duty  are  liable  to  inflation  for  the  purjiose  of  trade  deception. 


67 


STATUS   OF   APICULTURE   IN    UNITED   STATES. 

Table  VI. — Imports  and  exports  of  honey  of  the  United  States,  1855-1908 

[The  terms  'Comb"  and  "Extracted"  honey  used  in  these  headings  are  used  in  place  of  -'Uns 
and  "Strained"  honey  in  the  reports  of  the  Department  of  Commerce  and  Labor.] 


Imports. 

Exports. « 

Year  ending  June  30— 

Pounds. 

Value. 

Average 

price,  in 

cents. 

Comb. 

Extracted. 

Both  comb 
and  ex- 
tracted. 

1855 

5,245,908 
5, 142, 432 
4,  975, 908 

4,  790, 388 

5,  448, 372 
4, 626, 420 

S138, 189 
169. 643 
202,  436 
149, 915 
196.  751 
163, 027 

2.63 
3.30 
4.08 
3.13 
3.61 
3.52 

1856 

1857 

1858 

1859 

1 

1860 

1 

30,229,328 

1,019,961 

3.37 

1 

. 

1861                                    .     --   - 

3,  970. 320 
4,311,960 
3, 394, 896 
3,461.832 
1,899,072 
3, 332,  724 
2, 614, 824 
2, 546, 112 

146,  464 
195, 48.5 
158-  852 
162,  071 
87,  954 
135,253 
128, 537 
117, 172 
77,  405 
76, 459 

3.69 
4.53 
4.68 
4.68 
4.63 
4.06 
4.91 
4.00 

1 

1862 

1863 

1864 



1865 

1866 

1867 

1808 

1869 

si,i.52 

8,520 

1870 

i 

1,285,652 

1 

1871 

56,891 
80,014 

128, 925 
88,  379 

109,  368 
72.935 
61,205 
67,111 
48, 169 
59, 806 

2,479 
2,677 

1872 

$28, 168 

$30, 845 

1873                       

1874 

714 

3,586 

2,534 

36,  302 

6,212 

134, 728 

26,820 

57, 895 
29.563 
20, 079 
54, 063 
24,638 
27, 958 
28, 439 

58, 009 

1875 

33. 149 

1876 

28,  613 

1877 

90,965 

1878 

1,403,724 
1,005,984 
1,293,360 

4.78 
4.79 
4.63 

30,850 

1879 

162,  086 

1880                      

55, 259 

772,803 

i 

1881 

2,364.528 
1,831,164 
1,939,500 
1, 530,  432 
1,821,432 
1,-520,688 
1, 766, 592 
1, 893,  816 
968,976 
757, 428 

110,059 
78,976 
78,911 
57,  443 
67, 572 
45,551 
47, 679 
46,210 
26, 624 
27, 191 

4.  65 
4.31 
4.07 
3.75 
3.71 
2.99 
2.69 
2.44 
2.74 
3.59 

109, 007 
19, 082 

27,  820 

89,  761 

30. 592 

4,907 

198.  768 

1882 

49,  674 

1883 

32, 733 

1884 

68,  764 

1885 

224, 212 

1886 

44,  735 

1887 

67, 154 

1888 

7,579 

1889 

93,  888 

1890 

113, 101 



16,394,556 

586,216 

3.58 

900, 608 

1891 

572,880 

841,236 

2,113,764 

1,831,716 

809, 328 

959, 820 

797, 184 

1,159,248 

1,514,604 

1,762,320 

20,808 
31,418 
79,396 
56, 156 
22,993 
30, 009 
27,599 
38, 158 
51,599 
70, 857 

3.63 
3.73 
3.76 
3.07 
2.84 
3.19 
3.46 
3.29 
3.41 
4.02 

83,  325 

1892 

78,  048 

1893 

15.115 

1894 

127.  282 

1895 

118.873 

1896         

90,  909 

1897 

22.  368 

1898            

98,  504 

1899 

55.  900 

1900                               

30, 191 

12,  362, 100 

379,593 

3.07 

720, 575 

1901 

2, 186, 352 
2,007,612 
3, 452,  352 
2, 475, 504 
2.383,404 
1,6.58,652 
2,108,064 
2, 543, 904 

83.599 
56,  383 
115,400 
69, 053 
76, 719 
50,651 
70,854 
98,425 

3.82 
2.81 
3.34 
2.79 
3.22 
3.05 
3.  36 
3.9 

55. 574 

1902 

106,112 

1903 

64, 220 

1904 

69,  317 

1905 

63,  367 

1906 

111,945 

1907 

93,  690 

1908 

78,102 

a  Only  values  are  given  in  reports. 


68  MISCELLANEOUS  PAPERS   ON   APICULTURE. 

Table  VII. — Imports  and  exports  of  beeswax  into  the  United  States,  1851-1908. 


Imports. 

Exports. 

Year  endinp  June  30— 

Pounds. 

Value. 

Average 

jwic-e,  in 

cents. 

Pounds. 

Value. 

Average 
price,  in 
cents. 

1851 ! 

6  415,923 
6  32(5, 3(58 
6  37(5,  (593 
6  327,  .554 
6  2.'-i7, 415 
6  270, 320 
6  315,378 
6  36(5, 246 
6  290,374 
6  362, 474 

6 $122, 835 
6  91,499 

6  113,602 
6  87,140 
6  69, 905 
6  74,005 
6  91,983 
6  85,926 
6  94,850 

6  131,803 

629  5 

1852                                           .11 

6  28  0 

1853 1 

6  30  2 

1854 1 

6  2(i.  6 

1855 

6  27  2 

1856 

6  27.4 

1857.   ...                      

6  29  2 

1858 

6  23.5 

1859. 

1 

6  32  7 

1860 

6  36.4 

6  3,308,745 

6  963,548 

29.1 

1861. 

1 

6  270, 425 
6  142,312 
6  258,901 
6  341,4.58 
6  338,776 
6  272, 987 
6  253,065 
6  826,887 

6  94, 495 

6  47, 383 

6  80,899 

6  170,418 

6  2(51,381 

6 130, 650 

6  96,282 

6  255, 365 

189, 39(5 

6  137, 443 

6  34.9 

1862 

6  33.3 

1863. 

:::;i;:: 

631.2 

1864 

a  54, 087 
20,899 

0  23,900 
25,617 

a $13, 667 

6,414 

a  10,  420 

5,450 

5,609 

0  2.5.3 
30.7 

0  43.6 
21.3 

6  49.9 

1865 

6  77  2 

1866 

6  47.9 

1867 

6  38.0 

1868.                             

6  30.9 

18(59 

1870. 

a  19, 897 

6  346,668 

639.6 

6  1, 463,  712 

1871 

o 16, 817 
0  20,196 

14,661 
7,918 

15,400 

14,6(58 
o  16, 844 

13,302 

a  15, 861 

o2,766 

6  365, 195 
6  446, 474 
6  374, 486 
6  342,068 
6  353, 425 
6  218,610 
6  276,  891 
6  326,613 
168. 745 
193,217 

6  113,070 
6 126, 130 
6  118,053 
6  113,800 
6  96, 578 
6  69, 127 
6  84,  461 
6  9.5,074 
45,823 
48,880 

631.0 

1872                                                   

6  28.3 

1873 

631.5 

1874 

6  33.3 

1875.       .               

6  27.3 

187(5 

6  31.6 

1877.                                                  

6  30.5 

1878 1 

6  29.1 

1879.                                                             

27.2 

1880 

25.3 

o  138, 433 

3,065,724 

910,996 

29.7 



1881 

o6,733 

o5,312 

41, 681 

9,323 

21,211 

5,718 

2,371 

9,411 

11,773 

20,282 

164,090 

124,227 
59, 455 
51,748 
30,877 

136, 179 
90,350 
78,070 
99,917 

171,391 

40,203 
32,325. 
17,604 
16,042 
9,758 
36,626 
24,997 
20,554 
23,918 
19, 727 

24.5 

1882     , 

26.0 

1883 

168, 879 
48, 123 
91,754 
26, 546 
10,843 
51, 702 
75,951 

126,319 

24.7 
19.4 
23.1 
21.5 
21.9 
18.2 
15.5 
16.1 

29.6 

1884 

31.0 

1885 

31.6 

1886.                                     ... 

26.9 

1887 

27.7 

1888. 

26.3 

1889 

23.9 

1890.                      

11.5 

133, 815 

1,006,304 

241,754 

24.0 

1891 

379, 135 
271,068 
248,000 
318,(5(50 
288,001 
273,  464 
174,017 
272,097 
452.016 
213,813 

80,485 
65,487 
62,024 
80,024 
78, 776 
75,970 
43,339 
72, 473 
109,957 
51,526 

21.2 
24.2 
25.0 
25.1 
27.4 
27.8 
24.9 
2(5.  6 
24.3 
24.1 

120,548 
127,470 
77, 434 
469, 763 
309, 212 
222, 612 
195,048 
151,094 
152. 494 
319,379 

30,027 
31,898 
22,048 
118,093 
90,875 
65,844 
56. 462 
41,827 
41,916 
91,913 

24.9 

1892 

25.0 

1893 

28.5 

1894.                      

25.1 

1895 

29.4 

1896.                                     

29.6 

1897 

28.9 

1898.                                        .... 

27.7 

1899 

27.5 

1900. 

28.8 

2,890,271 

720,061 

24.9 

2,14.5,054 

590,903 

27.5 

1901 

213,773 
408.70(5 
488, 57(5 
42.'),  \m 
373.  .569 
587,617 
917,088 
671,626 

55,884 
115.937 
127,220 
116,878 
101,121 
168,014 
264,637 
194,769 

26.1 
28.4 
26.0 
27.5 
27.1 
28.0 
28.9 
29.0 

140,276 
125,283 
70,811 
5.5.631 
85,406 
101,726 
117,169 

39,464 
36,541 
21,337 
16,  .545 
24,966 
29,894 
36,392 

28.1 

1902 

29.2 

1903 

30.0 

1904 

30.0 

1905 • 

29.2 

1906.                    

29.4 

1907 

31.0 

1908 

«  Tnrliidlnp  manufactured  wax. 

6  Stated  siiTiDly  as  "wax,"  and  Inclndinri  wax  of  all  lin  's.  as  well  as  beeswax. 


STATUS  OF  APICULTURE  IX  UNITED  STATES. 


69 


The  following  figures  give  additional  evidence  of  the  magnitude 
of  the  industiy: 

Bee  keepers'  associations  (estimated) 100 

Number  listed  in  office  of  Bureau  « 86 

Journals  devoted  to  bee  keeping  ^ 3 

Breeders  of  queens  actually  recorded  (not  including  duplicates) c  164 

Breeders  of  Italians 146 

Breeders  of  Camiolans 37 

Breeders  of  Caucasians 35 

Breeders  of  Cyprians 6 

Breeders  of  * '  Holylands '' 5 

Breeders  of  Banats 6 

In  addition  there  are  several  large  factories  devoted  either  entirely 
or  in  large  part  to  the  manufacture  of  supplies  for  use  in  the  apiar}'. 

VALUE  OF  THE  HONEY  BEE  AS  A  POLLEXIZING  AGENT. 

The  honey  bee  is  of  great  value  as  a  pollenizing  agent,  and  in 
estimating  the  value  of  the  industry-  in  addino^  to  the  resources  of 
the  countr}'  this  phase  of  the  subject  must  be  included.  Other 
insects,  of  coui^e,  aid  m  this  way,  but  the  honey  bee  occupies  a 
peculiar  position  in  a  consideration  of  this  subject. 

Waite  '^  mentions  a  large  number  of  species  of  insects  vrhich  visit 
pear  blossoms,  but  says:  "The  common  honey  bee  is  the  most 
regidar  and  important  abundant  visitor,  and  probably  does  more 
good  than  any  other  species."  Mtiller,^  in.  his  vers'  comprehensive 
study  of  the  fertilization  of  flowers,  summarizes  his  results  as  sho^Ti 
m  Table  \^II. 

Table  YIII. — Fertilization  of  plants  by  insects./ 


Coleoptera 

Diptera 

Hvmenoptera. 

(A"pidfP) 

Lepidoptera.. 
Other  insects. 

Total... 


In  Low  Germany. 

On  the  Alps  generally. 

Above  the  limit  of  trees. 

\h 
II 

ii 

2fe 

|| 

SI 
3S 

o   . 

Ii 

|| 

1      K"" 

>-^    , 

-  ^ 

re-         >" 

PhO 

DQ"" 

'        129 

469 

8.96 

83 

337 

5.90 

33 

134 

4.82 

I        253 

1,598 

30.55 

348 

1,856 

32.49 

210 

930 

33.46 

368 

2,750  j 

52.57 

183  !     1,382 

24.20 

88 

519 

18.68 

(205) 

(2,191)! 

41.31 

(120)    (1,141) 

20.00 

(49) 

(402) 

14.46 

79 

365 

6.98 

220       2,122 

37.15 

148 

1,190 

42.83 

14 

49  ' 

.94 

7             15 

.26 

3 

6 

.21 

843 

6,231 

S-il       5, 712 

482 

2,779 

a  Several  of  the  State  and  county  organizations  are  affiliated  with  the  National  Bee  Keeper's  Asso- 
ciation. 

6 Gleanings  in  Bee  Culture,  Medina.  Ohio,  founded  1S73.  Bee-Keeper's  Review,  Flint,  Mich.,  founded 
1SS8.    American  Bee  Journal,  Chicago,  111.,  founded  1861. 

cThe  total  number  is  probably  twice  this. 

dWaite,  M.  B.,  1895.— The  Pollination  of  Pear  Flowers.  Bulletin  No.  5,  Division  of  Vegetable 
Pathology,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 

eMiiller,  H.,  1883.— The  Fertihzation  of  Flowers.    Trans,  by  Thompson,  London 

/  From  Miiller,  pp.  596-597. 


70 


MISCELLANEOUS   PAPERS   ON    APICULTURE. 


In  Tabic  VIII  the  entire  family  of  the  Apidae  is  credited  with 
41.31  per  cent  of  the  visits,  but  in  the  text  Muller  frequently  refers 
to  the  fact  that  on  some  plants  the  honey  bee  far  outnumbers  all 
other  insects.  He  speaks  of  the  honey  bees  and  the  bumblebees  of 
the  genus  Bombus  as  playing  ''by  far  the  most  important  part  in 
fertilizing  our  [German]  indigenous  flowers."  On  the  other  hand, 
Brit  ton  and  Viereck  «  attempt  to  show  that  the  honey  bee  is  not  so 
imj)ortant  as  has  generally  been  claimed  by  horticulturists  and 
entomologists.  They  find  that  ''honey  bees  were  exceedingly  scarce 
in  comparison  with  other  species  of  Ilymenoptera — or  in  fact  with 
other  insects."  From  collections  made  from  flowers  in  1904  at  the 
experiment  station  at  New  Haven  and  in  1905  at  Branford,  Conn., 
the  following  records  were  made: 


1^ 

03  2 

d 
(S 

1 

I 
& 

5^ 

Ilymenoptera 

Apis  inellifcra 

46 

28 

15 

5 

23 

29 
1 
4 
4 

8 
1 

32 
1 

16 
3 

1 

17 
3 

22 

1 
7 
1 

8 

1 

13 

4 

Diptera 

i9 

4 
3 

2 

7 
1 

8 
2 

16 
5 

Coleoptera 

2 

IleiTiiptera 

Total  number  of 
sp>ecimens 

72 

59 

23 

15 

44 

37 

8 

52 

20 

30 

8 

13 

6 

It  seems  fair  to  assume  that  on  account  of  their  great  numbers  the  small  bees  belong- 
ing to  the  Ilalictidne  and  the  Andrenidte  are  more  important  agents  in  carrying  pollen 
than  has  been  supposed,  and  in  the  vicinity  of  New  Haven  during  the  seasons  of 
1904  and  1905  were  of  far  greater  benefit  in  pollinating  the  flowers  of  the  plants  from 
which  they  were  collected  than  were  the  honey  bees. 

Earlier  in  the  paper  they  say:  "It  is  not  known  to  the  writers 
that  bees  are  kept  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  experiment  sta- 
tion; there  are  several  hives  less  than  2  miles  away.  Wild  honey 
bees  are  probably  not  veiy  abundant  so  near  the  city." 

There  are  several  facts  which  should  be  taken  into  consideration 
in  connection  with  this  paper — facts  not  mentioned  by  the  authors. 
In  the  first  place,  comparatively  few  honey  bees  are  kept  in  the  part 
of  Connecticut  around  New  Haven.  Furthermore,  a  scourge  of  bee 
disease  is  said  to  have  decimated  the  bees  of  Connecticut  some  years 
ago,  and  doubtless  this  decreased  the  number  of  bees  in  a  wild  state 
as  much  as  it  is  known  to  have  done  in  the  case  of  bees  in  hives.  No 
disease  is  now  recorded  from  the  vicinity  of  New  Haven,  but  it  may 
still  ])e  there  unreported,  it  being  found  in  many  parts  of  the  State- 
Further,  in  the  vicinity  of  cities,  bees  are  generally  less  prevalent 

«  Britton  and  Viereck,  1906. — Insects  Collected  from  the  Flowers  of  Fruit  Trees  and 
Plants.  Fifth  Report  of  the  Connecticut  State  Entomologist  for  the  Year  1905,  New 
Haven,  Conn. 


STATUS   OF    APICULTURE   IX    UNITED    STATES.  71 

than  in  the  country.  The  principal  point  which  should  be  consid- 
ered, however,  is  that  the  winter  of  1903-4,  just  before  these  counts 
were  made,  was  exceedingly  severe,  and  75  per  cent  of  the  colonies 
of  honey  bees  in  Xew  England  are  reported  to  have  died.  Honey 
bees  do  not  hibernate,  and  long-protracted  cold  weather  is  detrimental 
to  them.  Taking  these  facts  into  consideration,  it  is  not  so  strange 
that  the  honey  bee  played  a  minor  part  in  pollinating  the  flowers  in 
the  cases  investigated. 

While  in  the  particular  cases  observed  by  these  authors  the  honey 
bee  was  of  little  value  as  a  pollenizer,  the  ease  with  which  an  enormous 
number  of  honey  bees  could  be  brought  to  the  aid  of  the  orchardist 
places  this  species  in  a  class  by  itself.  Estimating  the  population  of 
a  colony  of  bees  as  low  as  10,000  in  early  spring,  it  may  easily  be  seen 
how  reacUly  the  orchardist  may  insure  pollination  by  carri^^ing  a  few 
colonies  of  bees  to  the  orchard,  provided  of  course  that  the  weather  is 
such  that  bees  can  fly  while  the  trees  are  in  bloom.  Under  adverse 
conditions  in  winter  the  other  insects  may  be  so  decimated  that  they 
are  few  in  number,  but  while  honey  bees  may  also  be  killed  off  in 
^^'inter,  there  are  means  of  protecting  them,  wliich  is  not  the  case 
with  the  purely  wild  species. 

Fruit  growers  as  a  rule  recognize  the  value  of  the  honey  bee  to 
their  industry.  Taking  into  consideration  the  insurance  of  pollina- 
tion by  transporting  colonies  of  bees  to  the  places  where  their  services 
are  needed,  it  is  safe  to  say  that  the  indirect  benefit  of  the  bee- 
keeping industry  annually  adds  to  the  resources  of  the  country 
considerably  more  than  the  amount  received  from  the  sale  of  honey 
and  wax. 

PRESENT  SOURCES  OF  LOSS. 

There  are  several  sources  of  great  loss  to  bee  keepers  which  might 
be  eliminated  to  a  large  extent  by  careful  manipulation,  but  there  is 
much  work  wliich  must  be  done  before  bee  keepers  are  able  to  over- 
come all  these  diflS-Culties.  Certain  losses  are  expected  regularly,  and, 
while  some  do  their  utmost  to  overcome  them,  an  annual  loss  must 
figure  in  their  calculations. 

Swarming. — The  average  bee  keeper  loses  many  of  the  swarms 
which  issue  from  his  hives,  and  these  escaping  swarms  may  well  be 
valued  at  a  high  figure.  By  careful  manipulation  and  the  use  of  large 
hives  swarming  may  be  largely  controlled,  but  among  the  majority 
of  bee  keepers  too  little  attention  is  given  to  this  phase  of  the  work 
and  nothing  is  done  until  the  swarm  actually  issues.  In  the  produc- 
tion of  comb  honey  smaller  hives  are  generally  used,  and  the  control 
of  swarming  becomes  more  difficult .  It  is  doubtless  true  that  swarms 
aggregating  in  value  $1,000,000  are  lost  every  year.  This  loss  may 
be  considerably  reduced. 


72  MISCELLANEOUS  PAPERS  ON  APICULTURE. 

The  greatest  obstacle  in  the  control  of  swarming  is  the  fact  tha 
the  activities  bringing  on  swarming  ate  so  little  understood.  Thi 
j)h(Miomenon  represents  the  bee's  natural  method  of  increasing  the 
number  of  colonies,  and  it*  may  be  attributed  to  instinct.  This, 
however,  does  not  explain  what  factors  induce  the  bees  to  swarm  or 
wliat  tlieir  activities  are  previous  to  swarming.  When  the  behavior 
of  the  bees  before  and  during  swarming  is  better  understood,  we  may 
have  greater  hope  of  a  method  of  control. 

Winffr  losses. — The  losses  in  winter  are  considerable,  due  largely 
to  starvation,  dampness,  too  long  a  time  without  a  cleansing  flight, 
or  extreme  cold  weather.  By  wintering  bees  in  cellars  in  the  North 
tliis  loss  may  be  considerably  reduced,  but  while  much  has  been 
written  on  this  subject  the  general  loss  to  northern  bee  keepers  is 
probably  at  least  10  per  cent  every  winter.  An  even  temperature  of 
about  45°  F.  and  a  dry^  atmosphere  are  considered  best,  and  the  best 
method  of  obtaining  these  conditions  is  an  individual  problem. 

Wliere  bee  keepers  do  not  pay  any  attention  to  the  selection  of 
their  best  stock  for  breeding  purposes,  the  loss  of  10  per  cent  or  more 
of  their  colonies  in  winter  must  not  be  looked  on  as  a  total  loss,  for 
generally  the  poorest  colonies  succumb.  In  the  southwestern  part 
of  the  United  States  the  winter  problem  can  be  said  not  to  exist  in 
the  way  it  does  in  the  North,  and,  as  a  result,  a  large  part  of  the 
bees  kept  there  are  of  poor  stock,  vastly  inferior  in  many  cases  to 
equally  neglected  stock  in  portions  of  the  country  where  winters  are 
severe. 

On  the  other  hand,  in  these  warmer  portions  of  the  country  it  is 
necessary  to  leave  much  heavier  stores  of  honey  in  the  hives  to  carry 
the  colonies  over  from  one  season  of  activity  to  the  next,  so  that 
' 'wintering "  is  very  expensive.  It  has  been  suggested  seriously  that 
colonies  be  placed  in  cold  storage  for  several  months  to  save  this 
heavy  consumption. 

' '  Winter  loss  "  is  in  many  cases  caused  by  disease,  which  so  weakens 
the  colony  during  the  summer  that  it  is  not  able  to  survive  the  winter. 
In  such  cases  the  bee  keeper  is  usually  ignorant  of  disease. 

Waste  of  wax. — No  other  mani])ulation  of  the  apiary  is  so  primitive 
as  wax  extraction  and  nowhere  is  there  more  room  for  improvement. 
As  every  bee  keeper  knows,  it  is  difficult  to  remove  wax  from  the 
comb,  particularly  in  the  case  of  old  combs  whicli  have  been  used  for 
brood  rearing  for  years.  Th(^  amount  of  wax  wasted  ever^^  year  by 
inadecjiiate  methods  of  extraction  amounts  to  thousands  of  dollars 
annually.  In  most  cases  over  10  ])er  cent  of  the  wax  remains  in  the 
''slumgum, "  and  even  l)y  careful  work  5  per  cent  is  left.  By  repeated 
rendering,  the  amount  may  b(^  nnluced,  but  the  time  necessary  for 
this  usually  makes  it  un])roiitable. 


STATUS   OF   APICULTURE   IX    UNITED   STATES.  73 

With  the  advent  of  the  movable-frame  hive  and  honey  extractor 
it  became  orthodox  to  continue  the  use  of  combs  year  after  3-ear. 
The  invention  of  methods  making  this  possible  was  of  such  great 
benefit  to  the  apicultural  industry  that  it  may  almost  be  said  that 
without  it  there  would  be  no  industry.  At  the  same  time  it  may  be 
that  bee  keepers  have  formed  the  habit  of  using  their  combs  in  this 
way,  and  in  consequence  are  losing  wax.  It  must  not  be  overlooked 
that  it  is  part  of  the  life  activity  of  bees  to  build  wax,  and  in  working 
bees  to  get  the  maximum  financial  return  from  them  it  may  be 
desirable  to  allow  them  to  spend  some  energ}^  on  wax  production. 
For  example,  immediately  after  swarming,  under  natural  conditions, 
bees  secrete  a  large  amount  of  wax;  they  also,  of  course,  build  wax 
at  other  times,  but  there  is  much  more  of  a  tendency  then  than  at 
any  other  period  of  their  activity.  There  is  good  reason  to  believe, 
also,  that  at  the  time  specified  the  amount  of  honey  consumed  in 
building  a  pound  of  wax  is  less  than  at  any  other  time.  With  wax 
worth  so  much  more  per  pound  than  honey,  it  would  seem  to  be 
desirable  in  some  cases  to  take  advantage  of  the  wax-building  abihty 
of  bees. 

In  rendering  wax  from  comb  the  usual  procedure  is  to  squeeze  the 
combs  in  a  press  while  hot.  With  but  few  exceptions,  this  is  the  only 
method  used.  Since  this  takes  too  long,  and  especially  since  all  the 
wax  can  not  possibly  be  removed,  it  would  be  wise  to  look  for  some 
other  method.  A  better  method  would  not  only  mean  greater  profits, 
but  would  be  a  gigantic  step  in  advance  in  bee-disease  eradication. 

The  loss  due  to  inadequate  extraction  does  not,  of  course,  include 
the  enormous  loss  from  wax  which  is  tlirown  away  or  which  is  allowed 
to  be  destroyed  by  wax  moths  for  lack  of  fumigation. 

Enemies. — ^When  it  is  considered  that  bees  five  in  a  large  com- 
munity and  seemingly  present  an  excellent  opportunity  for  the 
intrusion  of  parasitic  forms  and  predaceous  animals,  it  is  a  matter 
of  surprise  that  they  are  so  free  from  this  source  of  loss. 

The  wax  moths  {Galleria  melloneUa  L.  and  Achroia  grisella  Fab.) 
rarely  trouble  thrifty  colonies,  and  therefore  are  not  dreaded  by 
progressive  bee  keepers  in  the  colonies;  they  do,  however,  often 
destroy  stored  combs. 

Diseases. — From  the  standpoint  of  present  need  there  is  no  question 
in  apiculture  which  at  all  compares  in  importance  ^vith  the  control  of 
bee  diseases.  There  are  now  recognized  two  distinct  brood  diseases 
which  are  contagious  and  which  annually  cause  enormous  losses  to 
those  engaged  in  the  industry.  There  is  reason,  too,  to  beheve  that 
these  diseases  are  spreading  to  new  localities  at  a  rapid  rate,  and 
unless  vigorous  steps  are  taken  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  in  a  few 
years  they  will  be  distributed  to  every  part  of  the  United  States. 
78013°— Bull.  75—11 6 


74 


MISCELLANEOUS   PAPERS   ON    APICULTURE. 


The  a])athy  of  bee  keej)ers,  as  a  class,  to  these  scourges  is  re- 
markable, in  view  of  the  fact  that  information  is  available  wliich 
should  ])oint  out  tlie  dan^ijers  now  incurred  by  inadequate  efforts 
toward  the  control  of  these  j)ests,  or  in  most  cases  by  no  effort  at  all. 

As  an  example  of  the  annual  loss  from  this  source,  the  following 
figures,  furnished  the  author  by  Mr.  Charles  Stewart,  one  of  the 
State  inspectors,  froni  the  statistics  of  the  New  York  department  of 
agriculture,  are  of  value.  These  figures  are  based  on  the  actual 
number  of  colonies  suffering  from  European  foul  brood  wliich  were 
destro^^ed  or  ordered  destroyed  b}"  the  inspectors  of  apiaries  and  do 
not  represent  the  decreased  returns  from  colonies  not  treated  or 
from  those  affected  with  disease  and  treated.  This  epidemic  started 
about  1897.     The  decrease  in  annual  loss  will  be  discussed  later. 


Previous  to  1899 $39,  383 

During  1899 25,  420 

1900 20,289 

1901 10,  853 


1902 


860 


During  1903 $4,  741 

1904 2,220 

1905 1,725 


Total 110,491 


In  the  majority  of  cases  it  is  absolutely  impossible  to  estimate  the 
losses,  because  so  little  is  known  of  the  actual  territory  covered;  but 
if  a  loss  of  $25,000  is  possible  in  a  few  counties  in  one  State  and 
there  are  many  areas  much  larger  where  disease  is  equally  epidemic, 
the  loss  ma}^  well  be  estimated  at  $2,000,000  annually. 

The  figures  of  the  epidemic  in  New  York  offer  an  excellent  example 
of  what  may  be  done  in  eradicating  a  contagious  disease.  Unfor- 
tunately that  State  had  no  means  for  taking  up  an  extermination  of 
European  foul  brood  as  soon  as  it  appeared,  but  steps  were  taken  to 
begin  inspection  as  soon  as  such  an  innovation  could  be  introduced. 
B}'  hard  work  on  the  part  of  four  competent  inspectors  the  annual 
loss  was  rapidly  reduced.  The  same  results  may  be  obtained  any- 
where by  the  employment  of  competent  men  to  do  the  work,  so  that 
from  a  rapidly  spreading  epidemic,  threatening  the  bee  industry,  the 
situation  is  changed  until  the  disease  becomes  not  so  much  a  scourge 
as  an  inconvenience.  In  the  case  in  (piestion  there  can  be  no  doubt 
that  the  annual  loss  would  soon  have  reached  S50,000  or  that  the 
industry  would  have  been  practically  destroyed  had  no  State  aid 
been  given  just  when  it  wjis. 

Not  only  is  inspection  of  value  in  a  case  of  tliis  kind,  but  it  is  of 
inestimable  value  in  making  j^ossible  the  stopping  of  an  epidemic 
in  its  early  stages.  To  continue  with  New  York  as  an  example,  the 
same  disease,  European  foul  })rood,  has  since  broken  out  in  three 
other  localities,  but  the  force  of  inspectors  went  to  work  at  once  and 
there  is  litth*  <hingcr  of  serious  troubhv  It  is  safe  to  say  that  the 
value  of  inspection  in  tliis  State  is  nearly  eiiual  to  the  annual  value 


STATUS  OF  APICULTURE  IN  UNITED  STATES. 


75 


of  the  industry  in  the  State.  The  value  of  the  honey  and  wax 
produced  in  New  York  in  1899 — the  year  State  inspection  was 
instituted — is  given  as  $352,795  in  the  census  for  1900.  This  is 
obviously  too  low. 

Several  States  have  passed  laws  for  the  control  of  these  diseases 
and,  in  the  majority  of  cases,  the  results  are  as  good  as  can  be  ex- 
pected. The  laws  are  not  alwa3^s  all  that  could  be  desired.  Table 
IX  shows  the  States  having  inspection  and  the  force  at  work. 

Table  IX. — Status  of  bee-disease  inspection  in  the  United  States. 


State. 

Method  of  inspec-     ^"^i^^^ 

Principal  disease. 

Authority. 

County 15 

.   ..do 12 

American  foul  brood State  law. 

Colorado 

do 

Do. 

Idaho 

Divisions  of  State  I           2 
State !           1 

Countv '        (?) 

State ;           1 

do 1           2(?) 

-do 

Do. 

Illinois 

American  foul  brood  and 
European  foul  brood. 

American  foul  brood 

State  bee  keepers'  as- 
sociation. (No  police 
power.) 

State  law. 

Michigan 

American  foul  brood  and            Do. 

European  foul  brood. 

American  foul  brood 

.  ..do 

Do. 

.do          .                      1 

Do. 

County 2 

do 

do 

Do. 

Nevada 

(?) 
Law     against     keeping 

diseased  colonies. 
State  law. 

New  Mexico 

New  York 

do i 

Divisions  of  State.'           4 

County 1           2 

.do 

American  foul  brood 

European  foul  brood  and 

American  foul  brood. 
do 

Ohio 

Do. 

Oregon 

(?) 

Texas 

Divisions  of  State.            4 

County 4 

....do 1 

American  foul  brood 

do 

State  law. 

Utah 

Do. 

Washington 

.   ..do 

Do. 

Wisconsin 

State 1 

do 

Do. 

Other  States  are  at  work  on  tliis  same  question  and  it  may  be 
expected  that  mtliin  a  few  years  the  diseases  will  be  controlled  as 
much  as  is  possible  by  inspection. 

Badly  proportioned  distribution  of  apiaries. — A  present  source  of 
loss  to  the  industry  as  a  whole  is  the  fact  that  the  available  area  for 
nectar  gathering  is  not  properly  covered  with  apiaries ;  in  some  cases 
it  is  overstocked,  but  far  more  generally  there  is  room  for  several 
times  as  many  colonies.  In  pointing  out  the  loss  on  this  account  it 
need  scarcely  be  expected  that  a  method  for  remedying  the  present 
conditions  ^vill  immediately  follow. 

As  apiculture  advances,  more  and  more  of  the  available  bee  terri- 
tory will  be  covered  and,  naturally,  overstocking  will  be  brought 
on  in  many  cases.  By  natural  growth  of  bee  keeping  the  present 
lost  nectar  will  probabty  be  brought  to  the  hives.  Viewing  the  ques- 
tion, however,  from  the  standpoint  of  the  industry  as  a  whole,  it  is 
desirable  that  this  nectar  be  collected  by  bees  under  the  manage- 
ment of  intensive  bee  keepers — by  men  who  can  get  the  maximum 
crop  from  the  bees.     This  can  be  brought  about  only  by  education 


76  MISCELLANEOUS   PAPERS   ON    APICULTURE. 

of  tlic  lucn  engaged  in  the  work  to  the  greatest  possible  proficiency. 
It  can  not  be  hoped  that  men  owning  but  a  few  colonies  will  be  suffi- 
cientl}^  interested  to  carry  on  intensive  apiculture.  If,  therefore, 
efYorts  are  put  forth  to  bring  the  industry  to  its  highest  point,  they 
should  be  directed  toward  the  making  of  specialists  in  larger  num- 
bers. Above  all,  there  should  be  no  ''booming"  of  the  industry,  no 
effort  to  ''popularize"  it,  for  it  is  not  desirable  that  everybody  keep 
bees.  Bee  keeping  requires  careful  work,  and  to  get  a  financial  profit 
is  not  possible  in  the  majority  of  cases.  To  advocate  bee  keeping  as 
a  general  avocation  not  only  hurts  reputable  bee  keepers  but  gen- 
erally leads  to  grave  disappointment  on  the  part  of  those  who  are 
led  into  it  by  glowing  accounts. 

THE  NEEDS  AND  POSSIBILITIES   OF  APICULTURE. 

That  there  is  room  for  growth  in  the  bee-keeping  industry  admits 
of  no  doubt.  The  fact  that  honey  for  table  use  is  a  luxury  rather 
than  a  necessity  makes  possible  a  great  increase  in  marketing  by  the 
creation  of  a  desire  for  it.  This  is  recognized  by  those  who  are  engaged 
in  the  building  up  of  a  local  market  for  their  product,  for  it  is  found 
that  the  amount  of  honey  consumed  in  a  community  increases  rapidly 
when  honey  is  brought  to  its  attention. 

A  large  part  of  the  honey  put  on  the  general  market  does  not  go 
into  retail  trade,  but  is  used  in  manufacturing.  This  phase  of  the 
market  is  of  relatively  recent  growth  and,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  most 
bakers  and  confectioners  pay  a  small  price  for  honey,  there  is  in  this 
case  also  room  for  more.  Several  confectioners  have  stated  to  the 
author  that  they  find  it  difficult  to  get  enough  honey  in  the  general 
market  for  their  own  use. 

In  discussing  the  needs  of  the  bee-keeping  industry  these  may  per- 
haps be  best  di^aded  under  three  headings — scientific,  economic,  and 
educational.  In  naming  them  it  does  not  follow  that  all  are  absolute 
necessities  before  the  industry  can  reach  its  highest  perfection,  but 
there  are  many  lines  which  should  be  taken  up  which,  wliile  not  neces- 
sary, are  very  desirable  in  order  that  the  men  engaged  in  the  industry 
may  be  well  informed  concerning  the  various  phases  of  the  science. 

SCIENTIFIC    NEEDS. 

Statistical. — In  ordt-r  that  honey  and  wax  may  come  to  hold  a  stable 
place  in  the  market  there  should  be  available  more  detailed  statistics 
as  to  the  scope  of  the  industry  and,  following  that,  properly  timed 
crop  reports,  so  that  the  products  may  sell  for  what  they  are  worth. 

Zoological.— In  spite  of  all  that  has  l)een  written  on  races  of  bees, 
the  subject  is  far  from  being  ('()m])letely  exhausted.  More  reliable 
work  should  also  be  done  on  the  anatomy  and  embryology  of  the  bee. 


STATUS   OF   -\PlCtrLTlJEE   IX    UNITED   STATES.  77 

Numerous  papers  and  books  have  been  written  on  these  subjects, 
especially  on  anatomy,  but  they  generally  prove  incorrect  and  unscien- 
tific when  carefidly  studied.  It  is  regrettable  that  too  often  pseudo- 
scientists  have  been  allowed  to  impose  on  the  bee-keeping  pubhc  by 
sending  out  pubHcations  purporting  to  be  the  results  of  research  which 
are  in  reality  compilations  in  large  part,  and  the  actual  observations 
of  the  author  are  not  based  on  a  proper  preparation  for  such  work. 
The  amoimt  of  work  done  on  the  physiology  of  the  bee  is  indeed 
meager;  the  problem  is  a  difficult  one,  but  as  tecluiique  is  perfected 
such  work  should  be  taken  up.  The  whole  basis  of  practical  api- 
culture is  a  knowledge  of  the  behavior  of  the  bee;  without  such 
knowledge  there  could  be  no  good  practical  work.  Probably  no 
insect  has  been  studied  from  this  standpoint  more  than  has  the  honey- 
bee, but  every  new  piece  of  work  done  simply  points  out  new  lines  of 
work  that  are  desirable. 

Botanical. — Our  knowledge  of  nectar-secreting  plants  now  consists 
largely  of  random  observations,  usually  for  a  limited  locality,  recorded 
in  bee  journals  and  books.  Systematic  work  along  this  line,  if  done 
by  competent  obser\'ers,  would  give  to  the  bee  keeper  the  means  of 
studying  the  possibilities  of  any  locahty  as  it  can  not  now  be  done. 
More  work  is  needed  to  give  accurate  information  as  to  the  part  played 
by  the  honey  bee  in  plant  pollination,  as  well  as  data  showing  the 
present  value  of,  and  future  possibilities  in,  that  work. 

Badendlogical. — The  cause  of  one  brood  disease  is  now  known,  ^ 
but  there  is  still  a  great  deal  of  work  to  be  done  in  the  study  of  the 
bacteria  of  disease.  This  work  is  of  the  liighest  practical  importance, 
for  without  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  organisms  it  is  impossible  to 
diagnose  the  more  obscure  samples,  and  only  by  a  detailed  study  can 
information  be  gathered  as  to  the  amount  of  heat  or  disinfectant 
which  must  be  used  in  combating  disease. 

Chemical. — Considerable  work  has  been  done  on  honey  analysis, 
and  a  recent  pubhcation^  of  the  Bureau  of  Chemistry  of  this  Depart- 
ment is  an  excellent  piec«  of  work  which  lays  the  foundation  of  a  good 
market  for  pure  honey  in  making  it  possible  to  detect  adidteration. 
In  addition  to  what  is  already  done,  there  should  be  a  more  detailed 
study  of  honeys  from  individual  honey-plant  sources. 

ECONOMIC    NEEDS. 

There  is  or  should  be  no  sharp  distinction  between  scientific  and 
practical  bee  keeping.     Practical  bee  keeping  is  but  the  apphcation 

a  WTiite,  Dr.  G.  F. — The  Cause  of  American  Foul  Brood.  Circular  No.  94,  Bureau 
of  Entomology',  U.  S.  Dept   of  Agriculture,  4  pp.,  1907. 

fc  Browne,  C.  A.,  and  Young,  W.  J. — Chemical  Analysis  and  Composition  of  Ameri- 
can Honeys,  including  a  Microscopical  Study  of  Honey  Pollen.  Bulletin  No.  110, 
Bureau  of  Cheniistrj%  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture,  93  pp.,  VI  plates,  1908. 


78  MISCELLANEOUS   PAPERS   ON    APICULTURE. 

of  discoveries  made  by  scientific  work.  It  is  not  always  recognized? 
but  it  is  nevertheless  true,  that  careful  systematic  work  on  methods 
of  wintorintr,  prochiction  of  the  maximum  crop  of  comb  or  extracted 
honey,  or  the  like,  is  really  scientific  work  on  tlie  behavior  of  the  bee, 
and,  if  done  properly,  is  just  as  truly  scientific  work  as  any  that  has 
been  mentioned  previously.  Breed in<j^  of  better  bees  and  inspection 
for  disease  or  for  honey  adulteration  are  but  practical  applications  of 
scientific  investigations. 

The  question  of  breeding  is  economic  and  very  important.  It  is 
doubtless  a  fact  that  at  least  three-fourths  of  the  colonies  of  bees  now 
found  in  the  United  States  are  not  what  they  should  be  or  what  they 
would  ])e  if  proper  attention  were  paid  to  breeding.  By  requeening 
such  colonies  from  good  stock  the  annual  output  of  honey  would  be 
enormously  increased,  provided,  of  course,  that  the  improved  stock 
were  properly  manipulated. 

At  present  the  tendency  among  bee  keepers  is  to  accomplish  by  manipulation  the 
things  which  would  be  attempted  in  breeding.  Thus,  instead  of  breeding  for  non- 
swarming  bees,  we  have  attempts  at  the  construction  of  hives  which  provide  environ- 
ments conducive  to  nonswarming.  Instead  of  breeding  for  prolificness  we  have  trials 
at  using  two  queens  in  one  hive  to  get  the  same  result.  Good  wintering  qualities  are 
replaced  by  extra  care  in  wintering,  and  tongue  length  becomes  less  important  by  the 
use  of  alsike  clover  for  pasturage  in  place  of  red  clover,  the  nectar  of  which  is  largely 
lost  to  the  honeybee.  Activity  in  honey  gathering  is  replaced  by  the  keeping  of  a 
large  number  of  colonies. 

As  long  as  the  bee-keeping  field  is  not  more  completely  filled,  these  methods  of  avoid- 
ing the  breeding  problem  ^\^ll  be  more  or  less  successful.  The  time  should  come, 
however,  and  probably  will,  when  bee  keepers  can  no  longer  neglect  this  line  of  work.'^ 

EDUCATIONAL    NEEDS. 

While  the  problems  above  enumerated  represent  a  vast  amount 
of  work  which  must  be  done,  the  problem  which  entails  tlie  greatest 
amount  of  labor  is  the  spread  of  information  to  the  individual  bee 
keepers  who  want  it.  Several  agencies  are  now  at  work  doing  valu- 
able service,  among  which  may  be  mentioned  the  journals  devoted  to 
bee  keeping,  associations  of  bee  keepers,  the  teaching  of  apiculture 
in  some  agricultural  colleges,  and  the  work  of  some  experiment 
stations.  The  Bureau  of  Entomology  aims  to  aid  in  the  work. 
Most  of  the  text-books  on  bee  keeping  are  educational  rather  than 
records  of  personal  investigation,  for  in  large  part  they  very  prop- 
erly draw  from  many  soiu^ces  and  prepare  the  data  for  the  use  of  the 
bee  keepers. 

First  of  all  there  must  be  an  improvement  in  the  methods  of  com- 
piling the  work  done  by  others.  The  literature  on  bee  keeping  is 
so  enormous  that  the  average  individual  can  not  attempt  to  cover 

o  1908.     American  Breeders'  Association,  Vol.  IV,  pp.  200-201. 


STATUS   OF    .\PICULTURE   IX    UNITED    STATES.  79 

it,  and  to  aid  in  tliis  phase  of  the  work  this  Biureau  is  arranging  a 
bibliography  of  apicidtural  papers  and  books.  This  has  been  begun 
only  recently,  but  it  now  contains  about  8,000  titles  and  is  growing 
rapidly.  This  bibliography  is  in  conjimction  with  the  files  contain- 
ing the  residts  of  investigations  carried  on  in  the  Bureau,  as  well 
as  synopses,  translations,  and  notes  on  the  work  of  others  in  various 
branches  of  the  subject. 

The  greatest  difficulty  encountered  is  the  finchng  of  the  way  to 
get  in  touch  ^-ith  the  bee  keepers  to  present  to  them  the  residts  of 
work.  Xaturally  the  bee  journals  are  anxious  to  do  the  same  thing 
to  increase  their  subscription  lists,  and  the  associations  to  increase 
their  membersliip.  The  Bmeau  of  Entomology  has  recently  tried, 
as  an  experiment,  direct  commimication  with  all  the  bee  keepers 
in  Massachusetts  and  the  results  are  liighly  satisfactory;  so  much  so, 
in  fact,  that  the  same  work  is  being  carried  on  in  two  other  States. 
The  amoimt  of  time  and  work  that  is  necessary,  however,  makes  it 
impossible  to  carry  out  this  work  generally. 

Under  this  heacUng  comes  also  the  education  of  the  pubhc  to  the 
use  of  honey.  In  most  cases  this  must  be  done  by  the  bee  keeper 
in  his  own  locahty.  The  average  amount  of  honey  consiuned  per 
individual  is  now  too  small,  and  can  be  increased  by  some  proper 
means  of  bringing  it  to  the  attention  of  the  public. 

TThen  the  situation  is  carefully  stucUed,  it  becomes  evident  that 
the  possible  annual  crop  of  honey  and  wax  is  several  times  greater 
than  the  present  crop.  If  bee  diseases  can  be  properly  controlled 
and  good  information  be  properly  chsseniinated,  there  is  good  reason 
for  considering  the  future  of  commercial  apiculture  as  very  hopeful. 
The  industry  of  apicidtm-e  depends  on  commercial  bee  keepers  and 
not  on  the  bee  keeper  with  small  interests. 

SUMMARY. 

The  growth  of  apicidtiu*e  during  the  past  half  centm-y  has  been 
remarkable  and  its  present  extent  is  httle  imderstood. 

Bee  keeping  is  usually  not  the  sole  occupation,  but  is  a  side  line. 

There  are  in  the  United  States  over  700,000  bee  keepers  producing 
annually  S20, 000,000  worth  of  honey  and  82,000,000  worth  of  beeswax. 

The  average  number  of  colonies  per  bee  keeper  is  less  than  6. 

The  annual  importation  of  honey  amoimts  to  about  2,500,000 
pounds,  and  that  of  wax  to  about  700,000  pounds. 

The  honey  bee  probably  does  more  good  to  American  agriculture 
as  a  pollenizing  agent  than  as  a  honey  producer. 

The  present  sources  of  loss  are  due  to  swarming,  winter  losses, 
waste  of  wax,  enemies,  disease,  and  wasted  nectar.  Of  these  sources 
of  loss,  contagious  diseases  are  the  greatest  and  demand  attention. 


80  MISCELLANEOUS  PAPERS   ON   APICULTURE. 

There  is  much  need  of  furtlier  investigations  in  apiculture,  and  a 
few  of  the  desirable  lines  of  work  are  pointed  out.  The  work  to  be  done 
is<]:roupc(l  in  tliree  classes — scientific,  economic,  and  educational. 

Bee  keeping  as  an  industry  is  benefited  only  by  the  making  of 
expert  bee  keepers  financially  interested  in  the  business.  The  per- 
sons interested  but  little  are  a  serious  detriment  to  the  industry, 
especially  in  regions  where  bee  diseases  exist. 


U.  S.  D.  A.,  B.  E.  Bui.  75,  Part  VII.  Issued  May  24,  1! 

MISCELLAXEOUS  PAPERS  ON  APICULTURE. 


BEE  KEEPING  IN  MASSACHUSETTS. 

By  Burton  X.  Gates, 
Expert  in  Apiculture. 

HISTORICAL  SKETCH. 

When,  in  1620,  the  Pilgrims  landed  at  Plymouth,  this  country  knew 
no  bees;  the  Indians  in  their  languages  had  no  equivalents  for  bee, 
honey,  or  wax.  In  Elliot's  remarkable  translation  of  the  Bible  he 
was  obliged  to  use  the  English  word  for  honey,  with  sometimes  an 
Indian  termination.  Scarcely,  however,  had  churches  been  erected, 
scarcely  were  clearings  made  in  the  wilderness  for  growing  agricul- 
tural necessities,  when  the  settlers  turned  their  attention  to  securing 
honey  bees  from  England.  That  such  remarkably  early  trans- At- 
lantic shipments  of  l)ees  were  successful  there  can  be  no  doubt. 
Josselyn,  who  visited  New  England  twice,  once  in  1G38  and  again  in 
1663,  speaks  of  ''  the  honey-bee.  which  are  carried  over  by  the  English 
and  thrive  there  exceedingly."  <^  but  he  does  not  tell  when  the  first 
attempts  to  secure  bees  Avere  made.  Belknap.^  however,  wrote  "  that 
the  first  person  who  brought  a  hive  of  bees  to  this  country  [Xew 
England]  was  rewarded  with  a  grant  of  land ;  but  the  person's  name, 
or  the  place  where  the  land  lay.  to  whom  the  grant  was  made.  I  have 
not  been  able  to  learn."  Unfortunately  the  records  of  the  Colonies 
were  not  available  to  Belknap. 

Xewbury.  a  coast  town  north  of  Boston,  was  established  in  1635. 
There  the  first  effort  to  promote  bee  keeping  in  the  Xew  AYorld  was 
made.  Furthermore,  the  importance  of  the  industry  was  of  munic- 
ipal moment  to  the  extent  of  holding  out  to  one  John  Eales,  who  was 

a  Josselyn,  John.  1675.  An  Account  of  Two  Voyages  to  Xew  England,  p.  120. 
Second  edition.  London.  "  The  second  edition  is  the  first,  with  a  new  title 
page  merely." — Sabin.  Reprinted  in  Massachusetts  Historical  Society  Collec- 
tions, Vol.  Ill,  third  series,  p.  292.  and  by  William  Veazie,  Boston,  1865. 

^  Belknap,  Jeremy.  1792.  A  Discourse  Intended  to  Commemorate  the  Discov- 
ery of  America  *  *  *  to  which  are  added,  four  dissertations  *  *  *  3. 
On  the  Question,  Whether  the  Honey-bee  is  a  Native  of  America?  *  *  * 
Boston,  Belknap  &  Hall.     132  pages. 

81 


82  MISCELLANEOUS   PAPERS   ON   APICULTURE. 

then  living:  ii^  what  is  now  IIin<rhain,  Mass.,  an  inducement  to  come 
to  Newbury  for  the  purpose  of  teaching  the  settlers  how  to  make  hives 
and  to  care  for  bees.  In  August,  1()44,  Eales  came  "  to  one  John 
Davis  a  Renter  of  a  farm  with  ye  expectation  of  his  doing  service 
which  the  Towne  was  not  acquainted  with.""  Apparently,  however, 
John  Eales  was  not,  financially  or  otherwise,  a  success.  He  was  later 
arrested  and  put  in  jail  in  IpsAvich,  according  to  the  record,  and,  on 
May  11,  K)!.-),  '*  It  is  conceived  John  Eales  should  be  placed  in  some 
convenient  place  where  he  may  be  implied  in  his  trade  of  bee-hive 
making,  etc.;  c*v:  ye  town  of  Newbury  to  make  up  what  his  work 
wanteth  of  defraying  ye  charge  of  his  livelyhoode."  ^ 

There  can  be  little  doubt  that  John  Eales  is  the  man  to  whom 
Belknai)  refers  and  to  wdiom  credit  is  due  as  the  earliest  bee  keeper 
in  the  colonies.^ 

Further  convincing  evidence  of  the  very  early  introduction  of 
bees  into  New  England  is  the  date  of  their  importation  which  Haydn  ^ 
gives.  According  to  this  author,  "  bees  were  introduced  into  Boston, 
New  P]ngland,  in  1070,  and  have  since  spread  over  the  continent." 
The  source  of  his  information  is  not  given,  but  it  is  probably  in  some 
of  the  port  records  and  can  not  refer  to  the  first  importation. 

From  these  early  times  until  more  than  a  century  later  little  or 
nothing  is  known  of  bee  keeping  in  the  State.  In  fact,  during  this 
epoch  ai^iculture  in  the  Old  World  was  not  well  developed.  It  w^as 
not  until  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  that  writings  on 
bees  began  to  appear  in  Europe  in  any  considerable  number.  Bees 
Avere  receivinof  some  attention  in  Massachusetts  at  this  time,  as  is 

«  Ma ssaclin setts  Arcliives,  Vol.  L,  pp.  4-5.  [Manuscripts  in  the  State  House, 
Boston.] 

^18r>.3.  Records  of  the  Governor  and  Company  of  tlie  Massachusetts  Bay  in 
New  England.  Boston.  Vol.  2,  p.  101.  [I»eriod  covered.  1()42-1G49.]  John 
Kales  was  "  Freeman  made  att  the  Generall  Court,  May  14,  1(534."  Ibid.,  Vol.  1, 
p.  3G9. 

^  See  also :  Adams,  George  W.  1906.  Massachusetts  Bee  Keeping  in  1044. 
American  Bee  Keeper,  Vol.  XVI,  pp.  280-281. 

Gerstacker,  A.  18G2.  tJber  die  geographische  Verbreitung  und  die  Abander- 
ungen  der  Ilonigbiene  nebst  Bemerkungen  iiber  die  Ausliiiulischon  Honigbienen 
der  alten  Welt.  (Zur  XI.  Wanderversammlung  Deutsche  Bienenwirthe  zu 
Bolsd.ini  am  17,  18,  und  19  September,  1S(;2.)  Potsdam.  According  to  Von 
Buttel-Beepen  this  paper  was  given  as  "a  card  of  admission"  to  those  attend- 
ing the  Potsdam  meeting.  It  has  apimrently  become  lost,  excepting  one  copy 
from  which  Von  Buttel-Keepen  reprinted  it  as  a  part  of  his  paper,  "Apistica." 

Von  Buttel-Iieepen,  Dr.  II.  1900.  Apistica.  Beitrjige  zur  Systematik, 
Biologic,  sowie  zur  geschichtlicheu  und  geographischen  Verbreitung  der  Ilonig- 
l)iene  (.4/>f.v  mcUiflra  L.),  ihrcr  Varictiiteu  und  der  iibrigen  Apis-arten. 
Milllieilungen  aus  dem  Zoologischen  Museum  zu  licrliii.  Ill,  lleft  2,  8  tig.,  pp. 
IV  +  121-201.     Issued  also  as  a  separate. 

**  Haydn,  Joseph.  19(»4.  Haydn's  Dictionary  of  Dates  and  Universal  Informa- 
tion.   23d  edition.     New  York.    Also  other  editions. 


BEE    KEEPIXG   IX    MASSACHUSETTS.  83 

shown  by  a  letter  of  a  father  to  his  son,  dated.  '*  Sutton  [Massa- 
chusetts] June  the  2d,  1788."  «  Besides  sjDeaking  of  sending  to  his  son 
some  homespun  clothes  the  father  adds,  '^  as  for  news  we  have  no 
grate  to  rite  to  you  our  bees  have  swormed  yesterday  and  they  flew  of 
today." 

New  England  is  reputed  to  have  suffered  severely  from  attacks  of 
bee  moths  in  the  early  part  of  the  nineteenth  century.  There  appears 
to  have  been  a  period  of  general  devastation  by  this  enemy  from 
about  1800  to  1850.  It  handicapped  the  industry  considerably,  and, 
according  to  some,  completely  wiped  it  out  in  certain  localities,  ^^^rit- 
ing  from  Greenfield  in  1853,  L.  L.  Langstroth  sa^'s :  ^  *'  The  present 
condition  of  practical  bee  keeping  in  this  country  [meaning  the  whole 
of  Xew  England  and  Xew  York]  is  known  to  be  deplorably  low. 
From  the  gi-eat  mass  of  agriculturalists  *  *  *  j^  receives  not 
the  slightest  attention."  There  is  room  for  considerable  doubt,  how- 
ever, whether  the  moth  was  the  primary  cause  of  this  devastation,  as 
is  explained  below  under  the  headings,  "*  Enemies  "  and  **  Disease." 

At  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century  Langstroth,  who  had  been 
experimenting  for  several  years,  brought  out  his  invention,  the 
movable-frame  hive.  As  is  explained  under  the  head  of  '*  Hives," 
this  revolutionized  the  industry;  at  that  time  modern  bee  keeping 
began. 

Considering  the  very  early  date  of  the  first  introduction  of  bees 
to  what  is  now  Massachusetts,  and  that  from  this  locality  as  a  center 
much  of  the  present-day  bee  keeping  "■  spread  westward  with  the 
home  seekers,  it  is  not  a  little  surprising  to  discover  so  few  extensive 
bee  keepers  in  Massachusetts,  while  there  are  many  in  Xew  York 
and  Vermont.  Compensating,  however,  for  the  lack  of  extensive 
bee  keepers,  there  is  a  vast  number  of  small  apiaries;  their  number 
in  jDroportion  to  the  territory  is  probably  greater  than  in  any  other 
State  in  the  Union.  There  are  at  least  2,100  '^  who  derive  some  profit 
from  their  bees.     V^^ere  these  2,100  to  keep  twenty-five  colonies  each 

«A  photograph  of  this  letter  is  in  the  possession  of  the  writer. 

^  Langstroth,  L.  L.  1853.  Langstroth  on  the  Hive  and  the  Honey-Bee,  a 
Bee-Keeper's  Manual.     Northampton.     First  edition. 

^  The  details  of  the  present  status  of  bee  keeping  in  this  pai^er  are  based 
upon  the  returns  from  a  series  of  questions  sent  to  every  known  bee  keeper 
in  Massachusetts.  The  method  of  securing  the  statistics  was  described  in  the 
author's  paper  read  before  the  Association  of  Economic  Entomologists,  Balti- 
more, Md.,  December  29,  1908.  This  paper  is  published  in  the  Journal  of 
Economic  Entomology,  Vol.  II,  No.  2,  pp.  117-120,  April,  1909. 

^  By  actual  count,  the  recorded  bee  keepers  for  Massachusetts  number  2,127. 
This  exceeds  the  number  recorded  in  the  1900  census  by  328,  which,  consider- 
ing that  the  author's  work  was  accomplished  through  mail  while  the  federal 
census  is  the  result  of  a  house-to-house  canvass,  suggests  a  deficiency  in  the 
figures  of  the  federal  census  reports.    Of  the  2,127,  1,050  reported. 


84  MTSCELLANKOUS  PAPERS   ON    APICULTURE. 

and  Avere  their  apiaries  properly  distributed  over  the  State,  there 
ini<rht  not  be  forag^e  enough  to  support  them;  but  such  is  far  from 
reality.  The  average  is  only  five  and  a  half  colonies  per  bee  keeper, 
which  is  evidently  too  small.  In  this  is  a  key  to  the  bee-keeping 
situation  of  the  State;  if  the  resources  are  to  be  fully  utilized,  more 
bees  must  be  kept,  not  by  more  bee  kc^epers,  for  there  are  too  many 
small  ones  at  present,  but  by  several  hundred  jiroficiont  and  energetic 
bee  men  ])r(>|)erly  distril)uted. 

EXPERIENCE  OF  BEE  KEEPERS  IN  MASSACHUSETTS. 

Although  there  are  too  few  bees  kept,  it  is  interesting  to  ascertain 
how  ex})erienced  the  Massachusetts  bee  keepers  now^  are.  In  order 
to  gain  this  information,  a  question,  *""  How  long  have  you  kept  bees?  " 
was  included  in  the  list  of  questions  circulated  throughout  the  State. 
By  thus  knowing  the  length  of  time  these  men  have  been  keeping 
bees,  some  idea  of  their  proficiency  may  be  reached.  Of  those  who 
reported  to  the  author,  38  per  cent  have  had  less  than  five  years' 
experience  and  must  consequently  be  classed  as  amateurs.  While  this 
array  of  amateurs,  at  first  glance,  appears  high,  it  becomes  more 
significant  upon  considering  that  32  per  cent,  having  successfully 
passed  their  apprenticeship,  report  from  five  to  fifteen  years'  experi- 
ence, or,  in  other  words,  have  persisted  and  succeeded  in  bee  keeping. 
On  the  other  hand,  roughly  estimating,  50  per  cent  of  the  bee  keepers 
who  undertake  this  branch  of  agriculture  discontinue  it  within  their 
first  five  years'  trial.  This  is  not  due  to  lack  of  possibilities  in  the 
bee-keeping  industry,  but  must  be  attributed  in  a  large  measure  to 
sensational  presentation,  in  the  popular  press  and  elsewhere,  of  the 
ease  of  managing  and  the  huge  profits  to  be  derived  from  bees. 
This  overstimulation  of  the  bee  industry  is  a  positive  detriment  to  the 
bee-keeping  interests.  The  number  of  persons  who  have  taken  and 
will  take  time  for  a  proper  study  of  bee  culture  is  exceedingly  limited 
in  j)r()i)()rti()n  to  the  number  who  undertake  the  work  uninstructed. 
Consecjuently  a  50  per  cent  weeding-out  process  during  the  first  five 
years  of  attempted  bee  culture  is  a  stroke  of  fortune  for  the  industry. 
After  fifteen  years'  exi)erience,  and  before  the  twenty-five-year  mark 
of  service  is  ])assed,  there  is  another  falling  oti'.  The  figures  of  this 
census  show  that  10  per  cent  of  those  reporting  have  kept  bees  from 
fifteen  to  twenty-five  years,  which,  when  it  is  considered  that  a  bee 
keej)er  is  well  along  in  life  by  that  time  and  often  must  necessarily 
relieve  himself  of  care  and  work,  is  exactly  what  might  be  expected. 
No  less  interesting  is  the  fact  that  1(>  per  cent  continue  after  twenty- 
five  years  of  service.  These  are  the  truly  old  bee  keejiers,  many  of 
whom  remember  Langstroth  and  his  experimenting.  AVhile  they 
may  not  b(»  exactly  up-to-date,  they  are  to  be  respected  for  their 
[)ersistency. 


BEE    KEEPING  IX    MASSACHUSETTS. 


85 


For  purposes  of  comparison  divide  the  State  into  two  sections,  the 
eastern  section  to  inchide  Worcester  County  and  all  other  eastern 
counties  save  Barnstable  County,  which  is  not  at  all  comparable 
either  in  population  or  from  an  agricultural  point  of  view.  If  these 
two  sections  be  contrasted,  there  will  be  found  an  obvious  difference 
in  their  jDopulation.  In  the  eastern  section  the  cities  and  towns  are 
large  and  the  population  concentrated,  Avhile  in  the  western  part  the 
population  is  less  dense  and  is  thus  far  less  influenced,  on  the  whole, 
by  large  communities  than  the  eastern  section.  It  is  in  the  large 
communities  that  bee  keeping  is  usually  promoted  by  supply  houses 
and  conventions,  and  it  is  there  also  that  the  majority  who  seek  niral 
recreation  along  lines  promoted  by  popular  agricultural  papers 
reside.  Consequently,  it  is  to  be  expected  that  the  progress  and 
stimulation  of  bee  keeping,  either  as  a  recreation  or  an  industry, 
should  first  be  felt  in  and  adjacent  to  these  communities.  This  is 
precisely  what  is  noticeable  in  Massachusetts.  Back  in  the  country 
of  the  more  strictly  rural  section  of  the  State,  where  population 
acquires  but  slowly  the  progressive  impulses  which  are  first  launched 
in  the  larger  communities,  there  are  fewer  new  or  amateur  bee 
keepers  than  in  the  more  thickly  populated  eastern  section.  In  this 
western  section  the  ratio  of  beginners  to  advanced  bee  keepers  is  as  30 
to  70;  while  in  the  eastern  section,  where  are  found  two  bee-keepers' 
societies,  the  proportion  of  beginners  is  larger,  with  a  possible  ratio  of 
41  to  59.  Aside  from  the  influence  of  societies  in  the  eastern  section, 
supply  houses  have  had  a  noticeable  effect  in  stimulating  popular  in- 
terest and  in  promoting  new  and  improved  methods.  As  is  jjointed 
out  above,  sensational  stimulation  is  unfavorable  to  the  industry. 

Table  I. — Proportion  of  amateurs  to  ijracticcd  hcc  keepers  in  the  eastern  and 
icestern  sections  of  Massachusetts. 


t_  „    1 

Practiced  bee  keepers. 

Total 
number 

Section  of  State. 

ers  (5  vears  and 

less). 

5  to  15 
years. 

15  to  25 
years. 

25  years 
and  over. 

Percent. 

of  bee 
keepers 
report- 
ing. 

We'Jt  of  Worcester  County 

Worcester  County  and  east, 
exclusive  of  "  Barnstable 
County  

Barnstable  Countv 

Number. 
95 

302 
3 

Per  cent. 
30 

41 

Number. 
105 

209 

8 

Number. 
56 

104 

Number. 
67 

94 

1 

70 
59 

323 

709 
1» 

Total  for  the  State 

400 

38 

322  i            166  i            162  ,              62             1,050 

11                                       1 

86 


MISCKLLANEOUS   PAPERS    ON    APTCI'LTURE. 


NUMBER   OF   COLONIES   PER  BEE   KEEPER. 

There  are  but  two  bee  keepers  in  the  State  who  rej)ort  more  than 
100  colonies,  bnt  several  have  nearly  this  numl)er. 

'IVmm  K  II.  —  l.iKdtiou  of  Mtis.sncliusclls'  Inri/t  si  (iii'uirUs,  as  rcjtortcd  for  lUOG. 


County. 

60t«i75 
colonies. 

75  to  100 
colonies. 

100  colo- 
nies and 
over. 

County. 

50  to  75 
colonies. 

?«;  f«  inn  '  100  Colo- 

1 

Bnrnstalilo 

1 

•i 

1 

ll 

Essex      

1 

PlviiuiiiMi 

..   .       '                a2 

i*|                   1  '  ' 

Hutiiixlcii . 

2 

1 

1             Total 

9 

3                    2 

1 

"  One  of  these  bee  keepers  writes  that  he  increased  from  .15  to  l.'>.">  colonies  in  190G. 

It  is  a  peculiar  fact  that  in  Worcester  County,  where  more  bees 
are  to  be  found  than  in  any  other  county  and  where  bee  keeping  is 
ju-ogressive,  none  reports  50  colonies  and  few  have  even  25.  The 
two  largest  bee  keepers  in  the  State  are  located  in  Plymouth  County. 
That  there  are  so  few  large  bee  keepers  in  Massachusetts  is  due,  in 
the  writers  estimation,  to  the  heretofore  unrecognized  ravages  of 
disease.  This  is  discussed  elsewhere  in  this  paper  and  in  another 
publication  of  this  Bureau."  In  ^liddlesex  County,  for  instance, 
where,  so  far  as  at  present  known,  disease  is  not  prevalent,  the 
greatest  number  of  large  bee  keepers  is  found  and  also  the  second 
greatest  number  of  colonies. 

DISTRIBUTION   OF   BEES  IN  MASSACHUSETTS. 

In  the  eastern  section,  exclusive  of  Barnstable  County,  with  its 
high  ratio  of  novices,  there  are  practically  as  many  colonies  of  bees 
l)er  bee  keeper  as  in  the  western  section.  According  to  the  figures  for 
190(),  the  following  table  presents  the  conditions: 

Table  III. — Distrihution  of  hccs  in  Massachusetts. 


Spring. 

Fall- 

Section  of  .State. 

Number 
of  col- 
onies. 

Colonies 
per  bee 
keeper. 

Number 
of  col- 
onies. 

West  of  Worcester  County 

Worcester  County  and  east,  exclusive  of  Barnstable  Comity 

TlRrimt>i(>l(>  ('oiiiitv                                                                                              .. . 

1.760 

3,897 

182 

.5.4 
5.5 
10.0 

2.530 

5,595 

227 

Total  for  the  State                                                   

5,839 

5.6 

8,352 

From  the  foregoing  table  it  will  be  seen  that  the  minimum  number 
of  colonies  is  in  direct   disproportion  to  the   large  number  of  bee 


o  GateB,  Bnrton  N.  Ift08.  Bee  Diseases  In  Massachusetts.  Bulletin  No.  75, 
r.irt  III.  MtiroMU  of  Knt<uii(»l(W.  V.  S.  I)oi»artinent  <»f  AjjricMilttire.  Wash- 
ington.    Hnl.  11»4,  Mass.  Agr.  Exi).  Station. 


BEE    KEEPING   IX    MASSACHUSETTS.  87 

keepers.  The  large  population  might  account  for  this  in  tlie  east, 
but  this  does  not  explain  why  the  western  bee  keepers  have  not 
enlarged  their  apiaries,  which  without  question  should  ultimately 
result.  Again,  disease  is  beginning  to  exert  its  influence,  and  a  more 
general  understanding  of  its  nature  and  remedies  should  benefit  the 
industry. 

INCREASE   IN   NUMBER   OF   COLONIES. 

The  figures  on  increase  which  the  writer  obtained  show  an  increase 
from  5.839  colonies  in  the  spring  to  8,350  colonies  in  the  fall  of  1906, 
a  gain  of  2,413  colonies,  or  12  per  cent.  This  is  below  normal  and 
suggests  the  prevalence  of  bee  diseases. 

PRODUCTION   OF   HONEY  AND  WAX. 

The  subject  of  first  importance  to  every  bee  keeper  is  the  crop — 
How  much  honey  and  wax  do  the  bees  produce?  Unfortunately, 
however,  the  majority  do  not  go  beyond  this  and  ask  how  much  ought 
the  yield  to  be? 

HONEY    CROP. 

The  honey  production  of  the  State  is  little  more  than  one-tenth 
what  it  might  be.  The  markets  demand  much  more  honey  than  is 
produced  in  the  State.  As  nearly  as  can  be  ascertained,  some  80  tons 
of  honey  are  annually  harvested.  Most  of  this  is  not  shipped,  but 
is  consumed  by  the  producer  or  his  neighbors.  There  is  no  evidence 
that  any  honey  is  shipped  out  of  the  State;  on  the  contrary,  much 
comb  and  extracted  honey  is  annually  imported  from  Vermont,  Xew 
York,  and  sometimes  from  the  far  West  and  South.« 

Approximately  100  tons  represents  the  total  consumption  during 
1906.  This  consumption  varies  greatly  from  year  to  year,  depending 
on  the  crop,  as,  for  instance,  in  1907,  when  scarceh^  any  honey  was 
obtainable  in  the  market.  The  man  who  shipped  5J  tons  from  Ver- 
mont the  previous  year  sent  less  than  1,000  pounds  in  1907.  Xone 
was  received  from  Xew  York,  as  in  the  previous  year.  But  the 
estimate  for  1906  of  100  tons  is  only  one-half  the  amount  estimated 
as   consumed    in    1904.^     That   year   200   tons,   divided    among   the 

°  In  1906,  5+  tons  came  to  Worcester  from  Vermont ;  from  New  York  State  2^ 
tons.  In  Boston  the  imports,  according  to  this  authority,  were  approximately 
the  same.  It  may  be  roughly  estimated,  therefore,  that  for  1906  at  least  16  or 
at  most  20  tons  were  received  from  points  outside  of  the  State.  This  informa- 
tion was  kindly  furnished  the  writer  by  Hon.  W.  H.  Blodget.  in  a  letter  dated 
Worcester,  Mass.,  April  11,  1908. 

^  Gates,  Burton  X.,  and  Dr.  C.  F.  Hodge.  1904.  Bee  Keeping ;  How  to  meet 
its  dangers  and  difficulties.  Mass.  Crop  Kept.,  vol.  17.  No.  6,  pp.  30-10,  Boston. 
October.  Also  Fifty-second  Ann.  Kept,  of  the  Secretary  of  the  Mass.  St.  Bd.  of 
Agric,  pp.  411-426,  Boston,  1905. 


88  MISCELLANEOUS   PAPERS   ON   APICULTURE. 

inhabitants  of  the  State,  would  have  allowed  less  than  two  table- 
spoonfuls  per  capita  as  a  year's  ration.  Since  then,  however,  the 
population  has  increased  to  more  than  ;>.000.000,"  and  with  the  esti- 
mated crop  of  100  tons  in  190()  would  have  afforded  each  person  less 
than  one  tablespoonful.  Too  little  honey  is  available  in  Massa- 
chusetts. This  is  ])()rne  out  by  the  common  experience  of  those  who 
try  to  buy  extracted  honey  in  convenient  amounts  or  even  in  bulk 
for  table  use.  The  writer's  experience  is  that  it  is  almost  impossible 
to  ])urchase  at  retail  a  00-pound  can  of  good  honey  or  even  of  a 
poorer  grade  at  any  price.  As  for  being  able  to  buy  a  gallon  or  a 
quart,  it  is  impossible  unless  the  j^urchaser  is  willing  to  pay  a  high 
price  for  a  lot  of  small,  fancy  bottles,  which  may  or  may  not  contain 
good-grade  honey.  With  these  facts  in  mind,  it  is  evident  that  much 
may  be  done  to  improve  the  retail  trade  in  extracted  honey.  Comb 
honey,  on  the  other  hand,  is  usually  available  either  from  a  producer 
or  a  retail  store. 

The  crop  in  Massachusetts  for  1900,  as  reported  by  something  less 
than  half  the  number  of  bee  keepers  recorded,  was  145,257  pounds, 
approximately  73  tons;  but  since  only  a  little  over  half  the  re- 
corded bee  keepers  were  heard  from,  80  tons  would  be  a  conservative 
estimate,  as  is  shown  below\  It  is  somewhat  surprising  that  this  study 
should  show  the  largest  recorded  crop,  and  especially  so  in  view  of  the 
fact  that  the  investigation  was  carried  on  through  the  mails,  while 
census  data  are  obtained  by  personal  canvass.  This  at  least  suggests 
that  the  census  figures  probably  do  not  justly  represent  the  industry. 

Although  145,257  pounds  of  honey,  of  which  108,000  pounds  was 
comb  and  36,597  was  extracted,  is  the  heaviest  crop  recorded  for  the 
State,  the  product  looks  pitifully  small  when  it  is  remembered  that 
single  apiarists  in  the  West  frecjuently  produce  in  a  season  a  fourth 
to  a  third  more  honey  than  Massachusetts'  annual  crop.  If  the 
actually  recorded  crop  is  divided  by  the  number  of  colonies  reported 
in  the  spring  of  190(),  this  is  an  average  of  but  24  pounds  per  colony. 
Conservatively  estimating  from  experience  and  reports  of  large  prac- 
tical apiarists  in  New  York  State  and  the  ^yest,  the  average  yield, 
considering  all  classes  of  bee  keepers,  should  be  about  35  pounds. 
'J1iis  would  have  made  Massachusetts'  crojD,  merely  from  the  recorded 
number  of  colonies,  sj)ring  count,  204,330  pounds,  or  102  tons.  Con- 
sequently the  estimate  of  SO  tons,  assumed  for  convenience,  is  safe. 
The  question  is,  however,  a  larger  one.  The  possibilities  of  the  for- 
age and  the  number  of  colonies  which  it  would  sui)port  is  more  vital 
than  criticism  of  the  present   discrepancy.     The  writer  has  already 

a  Mass.  Census.  lOOH,  popiiljition  n.OOa.OSO. 


BEE    KEEPING   IN    MASSACHUSETTS. 


89 


fctated  ^  that  Massachusetts  can  support  approximately  40,000  colonies 
of  bees.  This  number,  producing  an  average  of  35  pounds  of  honey 
to  the  colony,  would  supply  1,400,000  pounds,  or  TOO  tons,  of  honey  a 
year,  contrasted  with  73  tons.  This  crop  would  not  be  especially 
burdensome,  and,  divided  among  the  people,  each  would  have  less 
than  a  half  pound  a  year.  Furthermore,  there  is  no  immediate 
danger  of  the  production  of  any  such  amount. 

Table  IV. — Honei/  «"f^  'f«-P  production  reported  in  Massachusetts. 


Date. 

Honey. 

Wax. 

Sources  of  data. 

1839 

Pounds. 

Poiivds. 
1,196 

0  59,508 
2, 324.  5 
3,289 
2,  454 
1,195 
2, 463 
1,690 
6,  250 
1, 289 

U.  S.  Census  Kept,  for  1840. 

U.  S.  Census  Rept.  for  1850. 

3d  Ann.  Rept.  Sec.  Mass.  Bd.  Agric.  for  1856. 

U.  S.  Census  Rept.  for  1860. 

13th  Ann.  Rept.  Sec.  Mass.  Bd.  Agric.  for  1866. 

U.  S.  Census  Rept.  for  1870. 

U.  S.  Census  Rept.  for  1880. 

1849 

1855 

73. 677 
59,125 
80,  356 
25,  299 
49,  397 
90,929 
109,050 
6145,257 

1859 

1865.. 

1869 

1879 

1889 

U.  S.  Census  Rept.  for  1890. 
U.  S.  Census  Rept.  for  1900. 
The  author's  census 

1899 

1906 

°  Includes  both  honev  and  wax  product. 

"  Extracted,  36,507  pounds  ;  comb,  108,660  pounds. 

WAX    CROP. 

It  is  customary  for  bee  keepers  to  save  their  old  combs  from  year 
to  year  before  rendering  them,  which  produces  an  annual  variation 
in  the  product.  Futhermore,  outbreaks  of  bee  diseases  cause  much 
more  comb  to  be  rendered.  Severe  winters,  which  frequently  result 
in  a  loss  of  bees,  usually  produce  a  relative  increase  in  the  wax 
output  the  following  year.  It  is  therefore  difficult  to  calculate  a 
representative  annual  product  of  Avax.  The  commercial  importance 
of  the  wax  crop,  and  the  relative  returns  from  it  as  compared  with 
honey,  are  gradually  becoming  more  and  more  realized;  therefore, 
as  the  honey  product  increases  it  is  to  be  expected  that  the  wax  out- 
put will  proportionally  increase.  Table  IV  presents  all  the  recorded 
information  on  wax  production  in  Massachusetts. 


SOURCES   OF   HONEY. 

Too  little  attention  is  given  the  nectar-yielding  flora,  even  among 
those  who  seek  a  livelihood  in  the  production  of  honey.  Although 
it  is  sometimes  difficult  to  learn  the  sources  from  which  bees  get 

ou.  S.  D.  A.,  Bur.  Ent.  Bnl.  75,  Pt.  Ill,  p.  23.  Allowing  an  average  of  100 
to  125  acres  to  support  a  colony  of  bees,  based  on  experience  of  large  bee 
keepers  who  maintain  a  series  of  outyards,  and  eliminating  500  square  miles  as 
probably  unavailable  for  bee  pasturage,  there  remain  7,814  square  miles,  or 
5,000,960  acres,  for  forage  in  Massachusetts,  which  would  support  approximately 
40,000  to  50,000  colonies  of  bees. 
78013°— Bull.  75—11 7 


90  MISCELLANEOUS   PAPERS   ON   APICULTURE. 

their  stores,  a  bee  keeper  should  have  some  knowledge  of  the  honey 
plants  of  his  locality  and  their  honey  value. 

White  clover. — Among  the  several  clovers,  white  clover  ranks  first. 
Tt  is  found  in  nearly  all  quarters  of  the  State,  but  flourishes  best  on 
liiiii'd  or  limestone  soils,  and  is  particularly  abundant  in  the  northern 
and  western  parts  of  the  State.  Just  over  the  line  in  the  Champlain 
A^dley  of  Vermont  the  chief  source  of  honey  is  white  clover,  which 
grows  there  in  tangles  and  mats.  AVhite  clover  honey  ranks  high 
in  the  market ;  its  color  and  flavor  make  it  one  of  the  finest  of  Ameri- 
can honeys. 

Alsil-e  clover. — This  is  frequently  sown  for  forage,  and  is  becoming 
more  and  more  renowned  as  a  honey  source.  Under  favorable  con- 
ditions it  yields  not  only  a  good  quality  of  nectar,  but  large  quanti- 
ties of  it.  It  rivals  the  red  clover,  on  which  bees  work  to  a  limited 
extent,  but  in  which  the  vast  stores  of  nectar  are  too  deep  in  the 
flower  tubes  to  be  within  reach  of  the  bee's  tongue.  Alsike  blooms 
with  white  clover  and  Avill  bloom  a  second  time  wdien  wdiite  clover 
has  ceased,  thus  prolonging  the  honey  flow  from  clover. 

Red  clover. — This  is  also  a  more  or  less  continuous  bloomer,  which, 
inasmuch  as  the  second  flowering  brings  smaller,  shorter-tubed  heads, 
is  somewhat  accessible  to  bees. 

Sweet  clover. — There  are  two  species,  white  and  yellow,  but  neither 
is  abundant  in  Massachusetts.  It  is  a  bountiful  source  of  honey  else- 
where, and  may  become  so  in  this  State. 

Crimson  clover. — As  a  hone}^  plant  this  is  of  slight  importance 
as  far  north  as  Massachusetts. 

Golden-rod  and  asters. — These  plants,  as  reported  in  this  State, 
rank  close  to  the  clovers  in  nectar  secretions.  Both  begin  to  flower 
in  July  and  continue  imtil  frost.  The  early  bloom,  however,  is  not 
Visited  by  bees  to  any  extent,  and  it  is  not  luitil  September  that  the 
flow  begins,  when  the  hive  takes  on  a  characteristic  strong  and  pleas- 
ant odor.  The  honey,  though  rather  dark  and  thick,  has  a  rich, 
aromatic  flavor,  which  many  people  consider  superior.  In  Massachu- 
setts a  luMilvctable  surplus  is  frequently  taken  in  September. 

Fruit  hlooni. — Apple,  pear,  cherry,  plum,  peach,  etc.,  which  are 
found  in  abundance  throughout  the  State,  are  next  in  importance. 
Fiiiit  bloom  is  the  source  of  early  stores  u})on  Avhich  the  colonies 
build  up  for  the  clover  har\est.  Insufficient  numbers  of  bees  at  this 
season  and  unfavorable  weather  make  it  difficult  to  secure  a  surplus 
from  this  source,  but  the  fortunate  bee  keeper  who  does  secure  a  crop 
should  realize  that  he  has  a  superior  ]^roduct.  The  body  is  heavy,  the 
color  is  clear  and  light  (usually  an  amber),  and  the  flow  comes  with 
a  rush  which  insures  handsome  sections;  but  best  of  all  is  the  exquisite 
aroma  of  the  'A]}\)\q.  blossom,  which  places  fruit-bloom  honey  in  a 
class  by  itself. 


BEE    KEEPING   IN    MASSACHUSETTS.  91 

Linden  or  hasswood. — Cutting  for  lumber  has  tremendously  re- 
duced the  number  of  basswood  trees  in  the  State.  It  was  once  gen- 
erally distributed  in  the  forests,  but  at  present  occurs  largel}^  only  in 
the  northern  and  Avestern  woods.  This  is  doubtless  the  most  val- 
unable  tree  honey  plant  in  Massachusetts  and,  together  Avith  its  value 
for  timber,  merits  cultivation.  It  makes  a  fine  shade  tree.  The 
honey  has  quite  a  characteristic  flavor  and  aroma,  but  requires  to  be 
well  ripened  before  its  delicious  qualities  are  appreciable. 

Buckwheat. — This  is  a  famous  honey  plant  in  New  York  State  and 
is  reported  from  all  counties  of  Massachusetts.  Here,  however,  it  is 
far  less  extensively  grown  than  across  the  line.  Some  bee  keepers  say 
they  plant  small  fields  for  the  sake  of  their  bees,  but  there  is  great 
doubt  if  the  bees  benefit  materially  by  it  except  in  cases  of  extreme 
scarcity  of  nectar.  The  honey  is  dark,  with  a  brownish  or  purplish 
cast,  a  heavy  body,  and  a  strong,  rank  flavor  to  those  who  are  accus- 
tomed to  more  delicate  honeys,  such  as  clover  or  fruit  bloom.  Many 
in  Xew  York  State,  however,  often  prefer  buckwheat  to  clover  honey. 
Especially  if  extracted,  it  usually  commands  a  good  price. 

^Vild  raspljerry  and  hlaclxherry. — In  the  highland  pastures  wild 
raspberry  and  blackberry  abound.  The  nectar  flow  is  of  long  dura- 
tion, beginning  soon  after  fruit  bloom  has  ceased,  and  thus  is  an 
important  stimulant  for  the  clover  harvest  to  follow.  Cultivated 
varieties  are  quite  as  valuable  for  forage  as  the  wild  species. 

Sumac. — There  are  several  species  of  sumac  which  are  important 
honey  sources,  but  which  are  greatly  underestimated  by  the  majority 
of  bee  keepers.  The}^  are  free  bloomers  and  flourish  in  nearly  all 
parts  of  the  State.  Apparently,  however,  the  nectar  yield  is  some- 
what erratic.  The  writer  recalls  seasons  in  AVorcester  County  when 
bees  paid  no  attention  to  the  great  heads  of  greenish  flowers.  Sumac 
honey,  although  not  light,  has  a  clear  and  firm  body  with  a  pleasant 
flavor. 

Locust. — Like  the  basswoods,  locusts  have  been  largely  cut  from 
the  woodlands.  There  are  several  species  now  found  to  a  limited 
extent  by  roadsides  and  in  pasture  walls,  where  they  are  valuable 
forage  for  bees.  In  Colrain,  Franklin  County,  one  bee  keeper  at- 
tempted to  cultivate  locust  for  his  bees,  but  met  with  no  great  returns 
for  his  efforts.  Another  bee  keeper  reports  that  locust  is  sporadic, 
yielding  nectar  only  once  in  three  years. 

Maple. — A  considerable  number  of  bee  keepers  report  that  maple 
is  a  honey  plant.  It  is,  to  be  sure,  one  of  the  best  sources  of  pollen  in 
early  spring,  which  doubtless  has  confused  the  bee  keepers  and  caused 
them  to  report  it  as  a  honey  plant.  Swamp  maple  is  especially  val- 
uable in  early  brood  rearing.  Maple  is  probably  of  less  importance 
as  a  honey  source  than,  for  instance,  the  mints,  strawberry,  and  milk- 
weed, which  were  reported  but  a  few  times. 


92  MISCELLANEOUS   PAPERS   ON   APICULTURE. 

CletJwa, — This  is  also  known  as  black  alder  and  sweet  pepper  bush, 
and  is  a  valuable  honey-secreting  plant,  largely  confined  to  a  belt 
paralleling  the  eastern  coast,  where  it  thrives  in  profusion.  The 
aroma,  a  sweet  smell,  i:)owerful  and  penetrating,  may  be  perceived  a 
ft)ng  distance  from  the  bush.  Bees  work  upon  it  freely,  and  unques- 
tionably produce  considerable  surplus  honey,  which  is  of  good  body 
and  light  color. 

These,  so  far  as  bee  keepers'  observations  afford,  are  the  most 
prominent  honey  plants.  Of  the  remaining  list — each  reported  from 
one  to  fifteen  times — milkweed,  wild  cherr}^,  knotweed,  dandelion, 
strawberry,  chestnut,  mints,  gill-over-the-ground,  and  mustard  are  of 
most  importance.  No  one  of  these  taken  alone  is  a  source  of  surplus 
honey  in  Massachusetts,  but  all  are  important  in  the  total  yield.  The 
writer  has  observed,  in  the  spring  when  fruit  trees  are  in  bloom,  a 
perceptible  effect  of  dandelion  nectar  upon  the  delicate  flavor  of 
fruit-bloom  honey,  producing  the  characteristic  bitterish  taste. 

Mill'wccd. — Where  milkweed  occurs  in  large  quantities  it  is  a  val- 
uable honey  plant.  In  Berkshire  County,  Mr.  Dewey,  of  Great  Bar- 
rington,  reports  that  milkweed  is  an  important  source  of  nectar. 

One  bee  keeper  in  Hampshire  County  reports  the  Tartarian  honey- 
suckle as  important  and  very  productive.  Sunflowers  are  valuable 
but  must  occur  in  considerable  numbers  to  make  a  perceptible  differ- 
ence in  the  crop. 

Most  of  these  plants  are  quite  as  important,  so  far  as  the  economy 
of  the  bee  is  concerned,  for  their  pollen  as  for  their  nectar.  ¥ov 
instance,  the  willow  and  skunk  cabbage,  while  they  are  reported  as 
honey  plants,  are  far  more  important  as  pollen  yielders,  because  at 
their  season  of  bloom  pollen  is  scarce.  The  chestnut  and,  to  a  certain 
extent,  the  dandelion  are  more  valuable  for  the  pollen  which  they 
yield  than  for  the  honey. 

TIIK  :M()1{E  IMJ'OirrANT  IIONEV  PLANTS  IX   MASSACHUSETTS. 

Table  V. — List  of  the  m<nc  imiKirtant  honvy  i>Uinis  in  Massachusetts. 
|Arranjj:od   acfordin^'  to  frequency   of   report.] 


Name. 


Clovers: 

White  (  Trifoliiim  rrpnu) 

Alsike  (  7'.  hi/hridum) 

Ked  (  T.  jiidiam) 

('riniHon  (  T.  iiirarnatuiii) 

Sweet  (Mfii/otiiK  alhti  and  M.  qtficinalis) . 
Yellow  (  T.  wjrariu m) '. 


fiolden-rods  {SttUdago  spp 
Asters  {Asler  Hpp. ) 


Times 
reported. 


626 
37 
7 
3 
3 
1 


677 


330 
99 

429 


BEE    KEEPING   IX    MASSACHUSETTS. 


93 


Table  Y. — List  of  the  more  i)ni)ortant  honey  plants  in  Massaehusetts — Cout'd. 


Name. 


Times 
reported. 


Fruit  bloom  (includes  pear  {Pynis  spp.),  apple,  cherry,  peach,  plum  {Prunus  spp.).  etc... 

Linden  or  basswood  ( Tilia  spp. ) 

Buckwheat  {Fayopyrum  spp.) 

Raspberry  (Eubus  spp.) 

Blackberry  {Rubus  spp. ) , 

Sumac  ( Rhus  pp. ) 

Locust  a  ( Robinia  spp. ) 

Maple  {Acer  spp. ) 

Clethra  ( Clethra  alnifolia) : 

"  Does  not  yield  everj-  year;  "  Once  in  three  years,"  one  bee  keeper  says 


337 
160 
114 


103 
23 


120 


LIST   OF   PLANTS    REPORTED    RELATIVELY   FEW    TIMES. 

(Reported  from  one  to  fifteen  times.) 


Alder  {Ahius  spp.). 

Arnica,  white  flowering  {Arnica  mon^ 

tana). 
Barberry  {Berheris  spp.). 
Blueberry  (raccin/wm  spp.). 
Burdock  (Arctium  lappa). 
Buttercups  (Ranunculus  spp.). 
Button    bush    (Cephalanthus    occiderir 

talis). 
Cherry,  wild  (Prunus  spp.). 
Chestnut  (Castanea  dentata  (marsh)). 
Columbine  (Aquilegia  canadensis). 
Cowpeas  (Vigna  catjang). 
Cranberry  (Vacciniuni  spp.). 
Cucumber,  cultivated  (Cucu)nis  spp.). 
Cucumber,  wild  (ilicrampelis  lohata). 
Dandelion   (Taraiacuni  spp.). 
Elderberry  (Samhucus  spp.). 
Elm  (Ulmus  spp.). 
Gentian,  fringed  (Gentiana  crinita). 
Geranium,  wild  (Geranium  spp.). 
Gill-over-the-ground      (Glecoma      hed- 

eracea ) . 
Gooseberry,  wild  and  cultivated  (Rihes 

spp.). 


Hickory   (Hicoria  spp.). 
Honeysuckle,     Tartarian «      (Lonicera 

tatarica). 
Horse  chestnut  (JEsculus  spp.). 
Huckleberry   (Gaylussacia  spp.). 
Knotweed  (Polygonum  spp.). 
Milkweed  (Asclepias  spp.). 
Mints,  catnip,  etc.   (Mentha  spp.). 
Mustards,  wild  (Brassica  spp.). 
New    Jersey    tea     (Ceanothus    anicri- 

canus) . 
Radish  (Raphanus  spp.). 
Shad  bush,   wild   (Amelanchicr   hotry- 

apium  ) . 
Skunk  cabbage  (Spathyema  fwtida). 
Strawberry,       wild      and      cultivated 

(Fragaria  spp.). 
Sunflowers  (Hclianthus  spp.). 
Syringa  (Philadelphus  spp.). 
Thyme  ^  (Thymus  serpyllum). 
Yiburnum  (Viburnum  spp.). 
Willow  (Salix  spp.). 
Witch-hazel  (Hamamelis  virginiana). 


PERIODS  OF  NECTAR  SECRETIONS  IN  DIFFERENT  LOCALITIES. 

Through  the  courtesy  of  several  bee  keepers  the  writer  is  able  to 
present  with  considerable  detail  the  periods  of  nectar  secretion  of 

°  Reported  of  importance  and  very  productive  in  Hampshire  County. 

^  Jackson,  Joseph  J.  1894.  Through  Glade  and  Mead.  Jackson  (p.  293) 
lists  it  for  Worcester  County.  It  was  also  reported  to  the  writer  three  times 
from  Berkshire  County. 


94  MISCELLANEOUS   PAPERS   ON   APICULTURE. 

the  more  important  honey  plants  in  several  sections  of  the  State. 
It  should  be  remembered,  however,  that  the  dates  of  nectar  yielding 
must  necessarily  vary  from  year  to  year  and  at  dilTerent  elevations 
in  the  same  territory;  consequently  the  data  here  presented  may  be 
slightly  at  variance  with  other  observations. 

HEKKSIIIHE    RPXJION. 

( I'urnishcd  l)y  E.  II.  I)«>woy,  of  (iroat  Barrinj^ton,  Mass.) 

Pussy  willow,  April  1  to  15.  Pussy  willow  in  slioltored  places  will  bloom  as 
early  as'  the  loth  of  March  aud  be  visited  by  bees  for  pollen.  Whether  they 
ji(»t  honey  as  early  as  that  from  this  source  I  do  not  know.  Just  when  pussy 
willow  bej;ins  to  yield  honey  I  can  not  positively  state,  for  bees  work  on  it 
very  early,  but  I  have  seen  them  with  tongues  extended  in  search  of  honey 
as  early  as  the  dates  indicated. 

Soft  maple,  April  1  to  8. 

Hard  maple,  April  20  to  May  H. 

Fruit  bloom.  May  1  to  25, 

liaspberry,  June  5  to  30. 

Locust,  June  5  to  15. 

Wild  mustard.  Wild  nnistard,  I  am  told,  appears  about  six  weeks  after  culti- 
vation. It  is  most  frequently  seen  here  from  the  middle  of  June  to  the  1st 
of  July. 

Clover,  June  5  to  July  25, 

White  sweet  clover,  July  10  to  Au.uust  25, 

Sumac,  July  10  to  20, 

Basswood,  July  1  to  15. 

Milkweed,  July  5  to  20. 

Chestnut,  July  10  to  15. 

Buckwheat,  August  1  to  25. 

Smartweed,  September  5  to  frost. 

Brook  sunflower  (Bidcns  Iwvis),  September  5  to  — .  It  is  fairly  covered  with 
bees.  I  have  seen  three  or  four  working  on  a  single  blossom.  Grows  on  low 
land  and  margins  of  water. 

Golden-rod,  August  20  to  frost.  One  variety  of  golden-rod  appears  here  the 
middle  of  August,  but  never  secretes  honey. 

Asters,  September  1  to  frost. 

Tag  alders,  September  1  to  frost.  In  my  immediate  locality  tag  alders  are  not 
common,  but  can  be  found  in  swampy  places  a  few  miles  from  here. 

CENTRAL   REGION. 

(Furnisl)O(l  l).v   Dr.  ,Tainos  I'..   Paij^o.  Massaclnisotts  Afjricultiiral  CoUejif".  Amherst.   Mass.) 

Fruit  l)loom.  May  12  to  ."^O,     Cherry,  plum,  :nul  peach  are  the  earliest.     Appl<* 

lasts  the  longest. 
Clover,  June  10  to  August  1. 
EuroiK'an  linden,  June  15  to  July  1. 
Raspberry.  June  (5  or  7  to  about  June  20. 

American  linden,  July  21  or  25  and  lasts  ten  days  to  two  weeks. 
Buckwheat,  latter  i)art  of  July  or  August  1,     Lasts  nearly  a  month,  according 

to  (|uality  of  soil  and  location, 
Golden-nxl  and  as'ters,  September  1,  Listing  until  frost. 
.Smartweed,   August  25  until   frost.    Does  not  api)ear  to   secrete  after   frost 

comes. 


BEE   KEEPING   IN    MASSACHUSETTS.  95 

Wild  clematis,  July  25  to  September  1.  Cultivated  variety  {Clematis  paniculala) 
blooms  early  in  September,  but  I  doubt  if  it  secretes  honey ;  it  is  sparingly 
visited  for  pollen. 

Thoroughwort.  ceases  about  1st  of  September. 

About  the  1st  of  April  we  get  soft  maple,  willow,  skunk  cabbage,  alder  and 

some  elms,   and   cultivated   plants,    such   as   crocuses,    etc.,   which,    I    suspect, 

supply  more  pollen  than  nectar. 

CAPE   COD   REGIOX.« 

(Furnished  by  Mr.  Allen  Latham,  Norwich,  Conn.*") 

Dandelion,  in  May. 

Huckleberry,  in  late  May. 

Blackberry,^  in  late  May. 

White  clover,  in  June  and  July. 

Common  locust  (in  Truro),  June. 

Sumac  (Rhus  copaUina)   (occasionally),  in  July. 

White  alder  {Clethra  alnifolia),  July  to  August. 

Fireweed  {ErecJitites  hicracifoUa).  August  to  September. 

Cut-leafed  water  hoarhound  (Lycopus  amcricaniis),  August  to  September. 

Burr-marigold,  August  to  September. 

Pink  knotweed,  August  to  September. 

Various  golden-rods,  August  to  September,  especially  Solidago  scmpcrvircns.  a 

gigantic  variety  of  golden-rod  which  thrives  in  the  sand  along  the  beach. 
Various  asters,  like  those  which  are  common  all  over  New  England,  September 

to  October. 
Cranberry,  flourishes  and  blooms  for  a  long  period.     This  may  yield  nectar. 
Strawberry,  grows  wild  by  the  acre  and  the  children  and  women  carry  bushels 

upon  bushels  of  these  berries  home  every  June.     Possibly  in  that  region  this 

plant  yields  nectar. 
The  beach  plum  is  an  old  settler  and  is  found  all  about  the  Cape  whitening  all 

the  beach  and  dunes  with  its  blooms  in  May.    Whether  the  bees  get  any  honey 

from  that  bloom  I  do  not  know. 
Wild  cherry,  both  the  black  or  "  rum  "  and  the  "  choke."  grow  in  abundance. 

As  these  yield  practically  nothing  inland.  I  judge  they  furnish  the  bees  no 

nectar  there. 

Listed  in  the  order  of  their  importance  to  the  bee  keeper : 

1.  Huckleberry. — Without  this  one  could  not  be  sure  of  a  crop  of  honey 
often er  than  every  other  year,  and  possibly  not  one  year  in  three. 

2-3.  Hoarhound  and  fireweed. — Probably  the  hoarhound  should  rank  ahead  of 
fireweed. 

4.  Fall  fiowers,  golden-rod  and  asters  especially. 

The  fall  flowers  will  always  furnish  a  crop  if  the  weather  permits  the  bees 
to  gather  it,  but  too  often  the  weather  is  foggy  or  high  winds  blow,  or  else  it  is 

°A  good  account  of  bee  keeping  in  this  region  is  found  in  the  following 
paper:  Miller,  Arthur  C.  190G.  A  Fnique  System.  How  an  Ingenious  School 
Teacher  Harvests  Crops  of  Honey  from  a  Desert.  American  Bee  Keeper, 
Vol.  XVI,  pp.  206-210,  October.     Illustrated. 

^  Mr.  Latham  specifies  that  the  data  relate  to  the  "  plants  known  to  yield 
honey  near  Provincetown,"  the  extreme  end  of  Cape  Cod,  about  50  miles  direct 
by  sea  from  Boston  and  25  miles  from  Plymouth. 

<'  It  is  possible  that  blackberry  is  very  important.  I  do  not  know  its  honey, 
and  the  flavor  may  be  lost  in  the  honey  from  huckleberry  bloom. 


96  MISCELLANEOUS  PAPERS   ON   APICULTURE. 

too  cold.  I  Lave  never  bad  such  crops  of  fall  honey  here  (Norwich,  Conn.)  as  I 
have  had  down  among  those  sand  dunes,  once  hi  three  or  four  years,  strong 
colonies  laying  upward  of  a  hundred  pounds. 

5-6.  White  clover  and  Clethra,  about  equal. 

7.  Sumac. 

RACES  OF  BEES. 

Among  the  bees  of  Massachusetts  are  found  representatives  of  those 
kept  in  all  parts  of  the  United  States.  They  occur  only  in  relative 
degrees  of  purity,  due  to  the  fact  that  young  queens  often  mismate. 
"  Hybrid  "  means  any  cross  between  recognized  races,  but  more  par- 
ticularly and  generally  the  cross  between  Italians  and  Germans. 

ITALIAN  BEES. 

According  to  the  data  at  hand,  594  bee  keepers  say  they  have  Ital- 
ians. This  does  not  mean  pure  Italians  in  every  instance,  but  it  does 
indicate  that  practically  half  of  the  bee  keepers  who  reported  have 
Italians,  a  highly  encouraging  condition.  Furthermore,  342  report 
that  they  have  hybrids,  which  may  almost  universally  be  interpreted 
as  a  cross  between  Italians  and  Germans.  By  adding  this  to  the 
number  who  report  Italians,  it  makes  930,  or  about  80  per  cent,  of 
those  reporting  who  have  some  Italian  in  their  hives.  This  clearly 
demonstrates  the  popularity  of  the  race. 

There  are  several  strains  of  Italians,  such  as  "  long-tongued,"  or 
"  red-clover,"  and  "  golden,"  or  '*  five-banded,"  and  the  like.  Al- 
though these  strains  are  all  found  in  Massachusetts,  data  concerning 
them  is  not  sufficient  to  decide  their  relative  merits  or  popularity. 

GERMAN  BEES. 

Pure  German  or  black  bees  are  exceedingly  scarce.  In  the  county 
of  Worcester  the  writer  has  seen  what  he  believed  to  have  been  the 
pure-blooded  Germans ;  but  these  colonies  are  seldom  met  with.  Al- 
though, as  is  shown  in  the  table  below,  19G  persons  report  that  they 
have  German  bees,  there  is  as  much  or  even  more  doubt  that  these 
are  strictly  pure  as  there  is  doubt  that  all  of  the  Italians  reported  are 
pure.  This  race,  at  least  in  ^lassachusetts,  is  destined  to  be  sup- 
j)lanted  by  the  Italians,  although  some  bee  keepers  still  complain  that 
their  Italians  are  constantly  being  crossed  with  blacks. 

CARNIOLAN  BEES. 

This  race,  from  Carniola,  Austria,  is  not  generally  used  in  Massa- 
chusetts. Many  who  were  interested  when  it  was  first  introduced  into 
America  tried  it  and  since  discarded  it ;  but  34  persons,  or  3  per  cent, 
reported  having  it  in  190G. 


BEE   KEEPING  IN   MASSACHUSETTS. 


97 


OTHER  RACES. 

Practically  every  other  race  of  bees  known  in  the  United  States  is 
on  trial  in  Massachusetts.  Several  mention  the  newly  introduced 
Caucasians.    The  Punic,  Q^prian,  and  Banat  bees  are  also  reported. 

Considering  the  races  by  localities  in  the  State,  it  is  difficult  to  see 
that  either  the  Italians  or  the  Germans  are  more  common  to  any  one 
section  than  to  another.  Italian  blood  tends  to  predominate.  Per- 
sonal observation,  however,  shows  that  hybrids  or  the  more  purely 
German  are  found  in  the  back  country,  where  newer  methods  of  bee 
keeping  usually  receive  less  attention;  the  pure  Italians  and  more 
recently  introduced  races  are  found  near  the  large  communities. 

Table  YI. — Prevalence  of  different  races  of  bees. 


Number  reporting. 
Percentage 


Italian. 


594 
50 


Hybrids.a 


342 
30 


Black  or 
German. 


196 
16 


Carnio- 
lan. 


34 


other 


Hybrids  are  largely  an  admixture  of  Italian  and  German  races. 


HIVES. 

In  1852  Langstroth  patented  his  movable-frame  hive,  which  marked 
the  beginning  of  modern  bee  keeping.  In  the  same  year  he  moved 
from  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  to  Greenfield,  Mass.  Bee  keeping  was  then 
in  a  deplorable  condition,  as  he  remarked,  most  of  the  hives  in  use 
being  those  impractical  devices  classed  under  the  names  of  "  box 
hives,"  "  patent  hives,"'  and  the  like.  According  to  the  writer's  ob- 
servations, these  old-fashioned  hives  are  fast  being  replaced  by  frame 
hives ;  colonies  in  box  hives  in  the  country  are  being  exterminated  by 
disease;  they  are  also  bought  up  for  transferring  and  for  use  in 
cucumber  greenhouses;  at  present,  bee  keepers  seldom,  if  ever,  start 
with  anything  but  frame  hives.  Of  those  who  reported  the  kind  of 
hive  which  they  use,  10  per  cent  have  exclusively  box  hives  and  8 
per  cent  more  acknowledge  having  a  few.  ^loreover,  there  are  a 
thousand  persons  who  did  not  reply,  and  it  is  fair  to  presume  that  a 
considerable  percentage  of  these  have  box  hives.  It  will,  conse- 
quently, not  be  exaggerating  to  estimate  that  25  per  cent,  and  possibly 
30  per  cent,  of  the  bee  keepers  of  Massachusetts  still  use  these  hives  to 
some  extent.  Lamentable,  too,  is  the  fact  that  the  apiaries  in  Berk- 
shire County,  against  the  Xew  York  State  line,  are  perhaps  in  worse 
condition,  so  far  as  the  box-hive  problem  is  concerned,  than  other 
apiaries  of  the  State,  for  figures  show  that  one-third  of  the  bee  keep- 
ers of  Berkshire  County  are  using  the  old-fashioned  hive.  This 
circumstance  is  particularly  unfortunate  because  the  flora  promises 


98  MISCELLANEOUS  PAPERS   ON   APICULTURE. 

g(K)d  honey  iH'oduction;  and  again  because  this  is  a  border-line  county, 
which  may  serve,  with  its  high  jiercentage  of  box  hives  in  which 
diseases  are  controlled  with  difficulty,  as  a  source  of  bee  diseases  in 
both  States. 

The  condition  on  the  whole  is  hopeful — 90  per  cent  of  those  report- 
ing hiive  largely  oi*  exclusively  frame  hives,  which  shows  a  progressive 
tendency. 

It  is  not,  however,  within  the  province  of  this  paper  to  discuss 
the  relative  merits  of  the  various  frame  hives  which  are  in  use.  The 
several  makes  and  patterns  in  principle  are  the  same;  they  vary  only 
in  detail  of  construction  and  proportion.  Climatic  conditions,  the 
methods  of  the  bee  keeper,  whether  for  comb  or  extracted  honey — 
in  a  word,  the  needs  of  the  individual  should  govern  his  selection. 

By  far  the  most  i)opular  hive  is  the  one  generally  used  in  the  United 
States,  perfected  by  Langstroth.  In  its  simplicity  and  propor- 
tions it  has  proven  satisfactory  to  the  climate  of  Massachusetts. 
Two  sizes,  the  8  and  the  10  frame  hives,  are  popular.  According 
to  the  statistics,  the  8-frame  hive  is  more  common  (340  bee  keepers 
report  having  it)  than  the  10  frame  (260  bee  keepers).  There  is 
a  rather  strong  tendency,  judging  from  remarks  in  the  reports, 
toward  the  10-frame  hive. 

Another  10-frame  hive,  devised  in  Franklin  County,  has  a  shorter 
and  deeper  frame"  than  the  standard,  and  is  second  in  j^opularity. 
Its  use  is  rather  local,  however,  being  confined  largely  to  central  and 
western  Massachusetts,  where  100  bee  keepers  report  having  it. 

There  is  but  one  ''  closed-end  frame "  hive  in  use  to  any  extent. 
Seventy-seven  bee  keepers  are  using  it. 

Besides  these  three  types  and  the  box  hive,  there  are  a  great  many 
homenuide  contrivances  and  a  few  patent  hives  wath  some  merit. 

WINTERING. 
METHODS. 

Bees  are  wintered  in  two  ways.  By  far  the  most  common  and  at 
the  same  time  least  laborious  and  less  efficient  in  the  latitude  of  Mas- 
sachusetts is  on  the  summer  stands.  The  writer  has  seen  bees  go 
thi'ough  a  winter  in  Massachusetts  unprotected,  without  bottom  board 
and  the  corners  of  the  hive  rotted  away.  All  manner  of  devices  for 
protecting  the  bees  on  the  sununer  stands  are  used.  They  are  packed, 
put  in  winter  cases,  and  wrap])ed  in  ])aper.  But  the  safest  method 
ill  a  climate  as  famous  for  severe  and  variable  weather  as  that  of 

"The  frniuo  Is  14  inches  lonj?  and  10?  inches  deep,  with  a  top  bar  one-half 
incli  lliick.  1  inch  wide,  and  KJJ  inclies  lonj;,  witli  tlic  corners  clipped  at  each 
end.  Tile  ends  of  the  frames  are  one-half  l)y  seven-eijrhths  inch,  and  the  bot- 
tom bar  is  one-fourth  by  seven-eighths  inch. 


BEE    KEEPING   IX    MASSACHUSETTS. 


99 


Massachusetts  is  to  winter  in  the  cellar.  Unfortunately,  many  of 
those  who  attempt  it  are  not  altogether  proficient.  Of  those  who 
have  reported  their  method  of  wintering  only  13  per  cent  winter 
their  bees  in  a  cellar.  It  is  well  established  that  by  proper  cellar  win- 
tering the  loss  in  northern  countries  may  be  reduced  to  a  minimum. 
In  order  to  do  this  properly  the  bee  keeper  must  be  painstaking  and 
observing:  he  must  use  a  dry  cellar  and  maintain  as  nearly  a  uniform 
temperature  as  possible. 

MORTALITT. 

In  New  England  and  the  Xorthern  States  loss  during  severe  win- 
ters may  run  as  high  as  70  per  cent.  This  loss  is  greatly  reduced  in 
favorable  winters,  when  it  is  as  low  as  10  per  cent.  Were  all  the  bee 
keepers  competent  and  careful,  this  loss  might  generally  be  reduced 
to  2  or  8  per  cent. 


II 


i>) 


0^% 

\B/IPNST/JBL£  \ 
BR/STOL 
£SS£X 
M/DDL£S£)( 
/VO/?£Ol/< 
PLVMOC/r/f 
y5U££0l/< 


C^^  ( B£/?/rs////?£ 


<!^VWORC£ST£R 


20% 


/9% 


tV/A/r£P£P  /N  TH£C£LL/fR  =[_ 

W/r^T£R£D  ON  SUMM£R  STANDS ^\ 
Fig.  1. — Proportionate  loss  of  bees  wintered  in  cellars  and  on  summer  stands.     (Original.) 

In  the  winter  of  190G-7.  which  was  not  especially  severe,  the  dam- 
age amounted  to  16  or  17  j^er  cent  (see  fig.  1)  :  although  this  was  not 
disastrous,  it  was  too  great  a  loss.  It  taxed  the  bee  keepers  of  the 
State  $4,886,  valuing  each  colony  at  $3.50.  "With  plenty  of  stores  and 
proper  protection  it  would  not  be  expected  that  one-sixth  of  all  the 
bees  in  the  State,  1.396  colonies,  should  succumb  during  winter.  The 
loss  was  most  severe  in  localities  where  disease  is  now  known  to  exist, 
which  suggests  that  the  excessive  loss  in  a  measure  resulted  from  the 
depletion  of  colonies  by  disease. 


BEES   IN   GREENHOUSES. 


The  use  of  bees  in  cucumber  greenhouses  is  one  of  the  many  phases 
of  bee  keeping,  perhaps  the  most  prosperous  or  certainly  that  most 
peculiar  to  Massachusetts.     The  industry  is  little  known  outside  of 


100 


MISCELLANEOUS   PAPERS   ON   APICULTURE. 


this  State,  j^et  growers  in  other  Athmtic  and  Central  States  have 
undertaken  it  to  some  extent.  Originating  in  AVorcester  County,  it 
has  assumed  large  proportions  through  the  eastern  part  of  Massa- 
chusetts. The  accompanying  map  (fig.  2)  shows  the  ai^proximate 
location  of  the  industry.  It  is  a  difficult  task  to  obtain  satisfactory 
data  on  this  jihase  of  apiculture.  Market  gardeners  who  grow  cucum- 
bers under  glass  do  not  consider  themselves  apiarists;  on  this  ground 
they  largely  disregard  requests  for  information.  Only  through 
a  jH'rsonal  canvass  among  the  growers  has  information  been  obtained. 


1  ?^r     ;;;  L-iM.DDL 


.J. 


7i 


^ 


V-1 


Fig. 


-Approximate  location  of  greenhouses  in  which  bees  are  used  for  the  pollination  of 
cucumbers.      (Orijrinal.) 


There  are  at  least  118  greenhouse  cucumber  growers.  Only  73 
of  these,  however,  have  furnished  definite  figures.  These  growers, 
including  some  of  the  largest  antl  many  of  the  smaller  producers, 
use  on  an  average  8  colonies  of  bees  a  year  to  set  the  crop.  If  the  118 
known  growers,  which  is  not  by  any  means  the  total  number,  require 
on  the  avei-age  8  colonies  each,  nearly  a  thousand  hives  of  bees  would 
be  utilized  annually  and,  if  the  statistics  from  every  grower  were 
at  hand,  the  writer  feels  sure  several  hundred  colonies  more  than 
a  thousand  would  be  needed.    AV^hen  it  is  considered  that  practically 


BEE    KEEPING   IX    MASSACHUSETTS.  101 

all  of  these  colonies  are  totally  ruined  while  in  the  gi-eenhouses  and 
that  the  demand  for  bees  is  on  the  increase  each  year,  it  may  be 
readily  seen  what  excellent  opportunity  there  is  of  producing  bees 
for  greenhouse  use.  Considering  the  recorded  sale  of  bees  in  1906, 
which  amounted  to  1,027  colonies,  it  is  probable  that  these  sales 
must  have  been  largely  a  result  of  the  demand  for  greenhouse  use. 
In  illustration  of  the  extent  to  which  bees  are  used  for  this  purpose 
it  may  be  mentioned  that  one  grower  who  picks  10,000  bushels 
annually  requires  80  colonies  of  bees ;  another  having  10  acres  under 
glass  requires  35  to  10  colonies ;  a  great  many  of  the  smaller  growers 
use  from  5  to  20  colonies.  Cucumber  growers,  as  a  class,  know  little 
of  bee-keeping  methods,  but  they  are  anxious  to  learn.  They  feel 
that  they  must,  in  the  stress  of  competition  and  high  expenses,  reduce 
the  cost  and  loss  in  bees. 

Bees  are  introduced  into  the  greenhouses  as  soon  as  the  cucumber 
vines  begin  to  bloom.  If  the  houses  are  large,  two  or  more  hives, 
according  to  the  area  of  the  house,  are  j^laced  on  boxes  on  the  beds  or 
hung  in  the  gables  of  the  house.  Various  other  methods  of  intro- 
ducing the  hives  are  also  employed.  Not  being  able  to  secure  suffi- 
cient stores  in  the  winter,  the  colonies  dwindle  or  become  depleted  in 
seven  or  eight  weeks  or  less.  It  is  a  common  practice  among  the 
growers  to  feed  their  bees  sugar  sirup  or  other  sweets.  Besides  not 
being  able  to  secure  nectar  to  any  extent  from  the  cucumber  blos- 
soms, the  bees  are  also  unable  to  gather  much  pollen,  which  is  prob- 
ably a  factor  in  the  rapid  depletion  of  the  colonies.  During  the 
spring  and  summer,  however,  bees  in  the  houses  fare  better,  because 
they  are  able  to  escape,  through  ventilators  and  lights  of  glass  re- 
moved for  their  exit,  to  the  fields,  where  they  secure  nectar  and 
pollen.  Even  under  these  circumstances  the  writer  has  seen  colonies 
with  no  stores,  with  only  a  handful  of  bees  and  with  scattered  and 
half-starved  brood.  It  is  not  surprising  under  such  conditions  that 
bee  moths  are  such  a  great  annoyance.  To  an  experienced  bee 
keeper  the  reason  for  their  presence  is  obvious;  when  a  colony  be- 
comes weakened  the  moth  gains  headway  on  the  combs.  Xo  remedy 
for  the  moth  in  dwindled  colonies  can  be  suggested  save  killing  the 
larvae  as  they  appear  in  the  hive.  A  means  of  keeping  the  colonies 
strong  must  first  be  looked  for,  which  will  relieve  the  bee-moth 
nuisance.  Without  doubt,  however,  the  pest  could  be  reduced  if  the 
greenhouse  men  would  be  more  careful  in  disposing  of  hives  in  which 
the  bees  have  died.  The  moths  breed  by  thousands  in  discarded 
hives,  and  later  are  at  hand  to  infest  fresh  material.  Under  no 
circumstance  should  discarded  combs  be  cast  outside  on  the  rubbish 
heap  to  be  devoured  by  the  bee  moths.  Such  a  practice  is  a  menace 
to  bee  keepers  for  miles  around. 


102 


MISCELLANEOUS   PAPERS   ON   APICULTURE. 


Table  VII. — Distribution   of  greenhouse  eucumhcr  groioers  and  record  of  bees 

used  in  greenhouses. 


County. 

Number 
known 
to  be  en- 
gaged in 
cucumber 
growing. 

Number 
report- 
ing. 

Number 
of  colonies 

of  bees 
known  to 

be  used 
annually. 

Bristol 

12 

10 

33 

4 

2 

1 

56 

7 
2 
21 

140 

Ksst>  \ 

15 

Middlesex 

244 

Norfolk                            

1                     50 

1                     20 

Suffolk                                                                  ...                    .       . 

1  1                   15 

Worcester 

40  '                 100 

Total 

118 

o73  i               J>584 

"Average  of   those   reporting,    8.  **  ICsti  mated    total,    044. 

THE   BEE   MARKET. 

It  is  doubtful  whether  in  any  other  State  in  the  Union  more 
colonies  of  bees  are  sold,  in  proportion  to  the  number  on  hand  in  the 
spring,  than  in  Massachusetts.  As  is  pointed  out,  the  cucumber  in- 
dustry has  much  to  do  with  this.  Although  there  are  many  small, 
more  or  less  amateur  bee  keepers  in  the  State  w^ho  customarily  sell 
their  surplus  colonies,  the  trade  is  not  at  all  confined  to  them.  The 
sup2^1y  houses  and  commercial  bee  keepers  sell  heavily,  which  is 
remarkable  in  a  region  where  there  is  so  little  bee  keeping  on  a  large 
scale.  Peculiarly,  every  county  in  the  State  shares  in  the  trade 
about  equally,  in  proportion  to  their  respective  number  of  colonies. 
The  table,  arranged  from  the  statistics  of  190G,  shows  that  the  bee 
keepers  of  Bristol,  Essex,  Franklin,  Hampden,  Hampshire,  Middle- 
sex, Norfolk,  and  Worcester  counties  sold  approximately  one-fifth  of 
all  the  colonies  on  liand  in  the  spring.  Plymouth  County,  however, 
took  the  lead,  selling  39  per  cent,  while  in  the  remote  counties  of 
Barnstable  and  Berkshire,  and  in  the  metropolis  county,  Suffolk,  the 
sale  was  relatively  light. 

Table  VIII. — Xuniber  of  colonies  sold  as  compared  with   colonies  o/f   hand  in 

spring  of  I'JOiJ. 


Number  of  colonies 
of  bees. 

County. 

Number  of  colonies 
of  be^s. 

County. 

Sj>ring 
of  1906. 

Sold  in 
1906. 

Spring 
of  1906. 

Sold  in 
1906. 

BftrnRtftblc 

185 
495 
321 
531 
491 
366 

1 
29 
80 
J  07 
102 
73 

1  Hampshire 

408 
962 
364 
463 
67 
1,199 

46 

Middlesex 

142 

Bristol 

Norfolk 

72 

Fsscx 

Plymouth                             

170 

1  Suffolk 

Worcester 

3 

202 

BEE    KEEPING  IN    MASSACHUSETTS.  103 

PRICES    OF    BEES. 

Figured  on  a  basis  of  $5  a  colony,  which  is  an  exceedingly  low 
average  price,  the  total  sales  reported  for  1906  would  have  amounted 
to  $5,135;  at  $6  per  colony  they  would  have  amounted  to  $6,162, 
which  more  justly  represents  transactions.  Colonies  of  bees  sell  as 
low  as  $2,  or,  if  they  are  in  a  nail  keg  or  soap  box,  for  $2.50 ;  at  about 
$3  if  in  a  regular  box  hive ;  and  from  $1  to  $10,  according  to  the  race, 
strength,  and  season,  if  in  frame  hives  of  standard  patterns ;  a  usual 
price  is  $6.  The  customer  sometimes  furnishes  an  empty  hive  to  the 
bee  keeper,  in  which  to  hive  a  swarm.     Such  swarms  bring  about  $3. 

THE    QUEEN   TRADE. 

Besides  a  trade  in  colonies  of  bees,  there  are  several  persons  in- 
terested in  commercial  queen  rearing.  All  but  three  of  these,  how- 
ever, do  a  relatively  local  business.  On  account  of  late  and  cold 
springs,  Massachusetts  is  handicapped  in  producing  early  queens  for 
market  which  shall  compete  Avith  those  raised  in  the  South.  The 
prices  prevailing  throughout  the  country — 75  cents,  $1,  and  up — are 
charged  for  queens  produced  in  Massachusetts.  It  is  difficult  to 
calculate  just  how  many  queens  are  reared  for  sale,  but  an  estimate 
of  500  may  not  be  far  from  correct. 

ENEMIES. 

The  only  enemy  which  is  formidable  in  all  parts  of  the  State,  but 
which  is  not  detrimental  to  progressive  bee  men,  is  the  bee  moth, 
Galleria  mellonella  L.  This  insect,  however,  has  been  credited  by 
all  the  early  apiarists,  Langstroth  included,  with  devastating,  crip- 
pling, and  practically  annihilating  the  bee-keeping  interests  through- 
out New  England.  According  to  Edmund  Smith,"  it  first  took  hold 
in  eastern  Massachusetts  about  1800.  In  1805  it  reached  Connecticut. 
Thence  it  spread  westward.  Writers — as,  for  instance.  Smith — were 
formerly  inclined  to  consider  the  moth  as  a  formidable  enemy.  Smith 
says :  "  For  a  time,  Avherever  it  appeared  it  nearly  destroyed  the  bees. 
At  first  it  was  more  fatal  than  it  has  been  since.''  The  inroads  of  the 
moth  led  to  all  sorts  of  claptrap  devices  in  the  form  of  "  patent 
hives  "  to  protect  the  bees  from  the  pest.  But  there  is  serious  doubt, 
in  view  of  recent  discoveries  of  the  relation  of  moths  and  bee  disease, 
if  this  historical  disaster  was  really  due  to  the  moth.  There  is  good 
reason  to  believe  moths  were  secondar3^  while  disease,  not  then  under- 
stood, was  primary.     This  matter  is  more  fully  discussed  in  a  former 

"  Smith,  Edmund,  Chairman.  1864.  Bee  Culture,  Essex.  From  the  report 
of  the  Committee  on  Bread  and  Honey.  Abstract  of  the  returns  of  the  agri- 
cultural societies  of  Massachusetts.  Bound  together  with  Eleventh  Annual 
Report  of  Secretary  of  INIassachusetts  Board  of  Agriculture,  pp.  221-229. 


104  MISCELLANEOUS  PAPERS  ON  APICULTURE. 

paper."  The  moth  does  not  materially  damage  strong,  healthy 
colonies,  but  is  a  menace  only  to  persons  who  are  inattentive  to  their 
bees  or  who  are  careless,  leaving  empty  combs  about  their  hives  and 
bee  yards,  and  who  fail  to  recognize  and  to  treat  bee  diseases. 
Combs  not  in  use  or  not  covered  by  l)ees  should  be  fumigated  with 
carbon  bisulphid  and  sealed  in  tight  boxes  for  storage. 

dama(;e  to  the  bee-keeping  industry  by  the  gipsy  moth  (porthe- 

TRIA  DISPAR)    and  BKOWN-TAH.  MOTH    (eUPROCTIS  CHRYSORRHCEA)  . 

Xumerous  complaints  came  from  eastern  Massachusetts,  where 
gipsy  and  brown-tail  moths  are  doing  tremendous  damage  to  forest 
and  shade  trees,  that  they  were  causing  a  loss  to  the  apiarist  as  well. 
Damage  is  done  both  directly  to  the  bees  and  indirectly  to  the  honey 
flora. 

From  Cliftondale,  Plssex  County,  one  bee  keej^er  says  that  they 
have  bothered  during  June  and  July  by  trying  to  crawl  in  at  the 
entrance  of  his  hives.  Another  speaks  of  the  caterpillars  having 
eaten  up  all  the  plants  which  the  bees  commonly  forage  upon,  save 
golden-rod  and  burdock,  and  have  thus  caused  a  loss  of  his  bees. 
Failure  of  his  honey  crop  in  190G  is  attributed  to  severe  ravages  of 
gipsy  and  brown-tail  moths.  The  basswood  of  New  England  was 
formerly  a  good  honey  producer  and  could  be  counted  upon  for  a 
crop,  is  a  report  from  Melrose,  but  since  the  brown-tail  and  gipsy 
moths  defoliated  the  trees  it  can  no  longer  yield  much.  A  Medford 
bee  keeper  contributes  this  interesting  note: 

Gipsy  and  brown  tails  liavo  so  spoiled  the  fruit  bloom,  an  important  factor 
in  spring  buildinj?,  that  colonies  fall  to  become  sufficiently  strong  for  the  har- 
vest. The  willow,  maple,  and  elm,  early  pollen  yielders.  have  also  suffered  from 
the  moths,  which  has  consequently  damaged  bee  keeping. 

Another  peculiar  case  is  reported  from  Cliftondale.  Brown-tail 
and  gipsy  moths  were  so  thick  on  the  trees  when  a  number  of  swarms 
came  out  that  the  bees  did  not  stay  near  the  apiary. 

The  trees  were  covered  with  them  so  that  the  bees  would  not  stay  to  be 
hived.  *  *  *  In  regard  to  tlie  honey  plants,  the  moths  destroyed  all  the  blos- 
soms on  the  fruit  trees  and  wild  plants.  Every  place  was  covered  with  them 
each  year  from  1904  to  190(5;  the  result  is  that  there  was  no  honey  this  j-ear 
(1900),  owing  to  so  many  of  the  fruit  trei^s  and  honey  plants  being  destroyed 
by  the  pest. 

BEE  DISEASES. 

This  subject  lias  already  been  treated  with  some  detail  in  a  former 
paper.''  'Since  the  api)earance  of  that  paper,  however,  the  extent  of 
diseases  and  the  damage  they  are  doing  have  become  more  fully  real- 

«  dates,  Rurton  X.  190.S.  Bee  Diseases  in  Massachusetts.  Bui.  No.  75,  Part 
III,  Bureau  of  Kntomology;    Bui.  124,  Mass.  Agr.  Exp.  Station. 

''Ibid,  pp.  2IWJL*;  also  Bui.  No.  V24,  Agr.  Exp.  Station,  Amherst,  Mass. 


BEE   KEEPING  IN   MASSACHUSETTS.  105 

ized.     Consequently  their  general  distribution  has  been  found  to  be 
even  greater  than  was  then  believed. 

BEE   KEEPERS'   ORGANIZATIONS. 

Bee  keepers'  societies,  fairs,  institutes,  conventions,  and  the  course 
of  instruction  in  bee  keeping  at  the  Massachusetts  Agricultural  Col- 
lege at  Amherst  are  strong  factors  in  the  advancement  and  progress 
of  apiculture  in  Massachusetts.  The  societies  bring  together  the 
practiced  and  proficient  bee  keepers  in  several  sections  of  the  State. 
The  instruction  at  Amherst  reaches  a  few,  largely  beginners,  each 
year;  conventions  and  institutes  bring  together  the  new  and  the  old 
bee  keepers  from  over  a  large  area  for  consideration  of  present-day 
problems ;  the  State  and  county  fairs  and  agricultural  shows  educate 
the  public  and  benefit  the  industry. 

There  are  at  present  two  societies  organized  in  the  interest  of  pro- 
moting bee  keeping.  The  oldest  is  the  Worcester  County  Bee 
Keepers'  Society,  organized  April  14,  1900.  Meetings  are  held 
monthly  throughout  the  winter  months.  At  least  once  each  summer 
there  is  a  field  meeting  and  institute.  Since  1906,  in  the  fall  of  each 
year,  a  '*  bee  show  "  or  fair  is  held  at  T^'orcester,  where  are  held  com- 
petitive exhibits  of  bees,  products,  supplies,  etc.  There  is  usually  a 
series  of  lectures  in  connection  with  the  fair. 

The  other  society  is  the  Massachusetts  Society  of  Bee  Keepers, 
which  was  organized  March  24,  1906,  when  the  Massachusetts  Api- 
cultural  Society  was  disbanded.  Meetings  are  held  in  Boston  once 
each  month  during  the  winter. 

Another  society,  to  be  called  the  Franklin,  Hampshire,  and  Hamp- 
den Bee  Keepers'  Association,  was  provisionally  organized  at  an  insti- 
tute meeting  of  the  Massachusetts  State  Board  of  Agriculture  at  Lud- 
low, Mass.,  July  21,  1908. 

INSTRUCTIOX    IX    BEE    KEEPING. 

At  the  Massachusetts  Agricultural  College,  Amherst,  there  is  given 
each  year,  beginning  the  fourth  Wednesday  in  May  and  continuing 
two  weeks,  a  course  in  apiculture,  which  is  free  to  those  who  enroll. 
The  course  includes  excursions  to  apiaries  of  peculiar  interest,  lec- 
tures, and  practical  demonstration  and  practice. 

CONVENTIONS. 

The  Massachusetts  State  Board  of  Agriculture  is  exceedingly  in- 
terested in  promoting  bee  keeping  and  holds  several  institutes  each 
year,  usually  with  the  bee  keepers*  societies.  Several  papers  on  bee 
keeping,  enumerated  in  the  appended  bibliography,  have  been  pub- 
lished by  the  board. 

78013°— Bull.  75—11 8 


106  MlSCKTJ.ANEors    PAPKRS    ON    APICULTURE. 

SUMMARY. 

As  early  as  1(*»14  Iho  colonii's  made  a  he^inniiitj:  in  apiculture  in 
Massachusetts.  Moie  than  two  centuries  passed,  however,  before 
modern  Ikh'  keeping  l)e<ran,  which  came  with  the  invention  of  the 
frame  hive  hy  Lan^troth  in  1S53.  To-day  there  are  more  than  2,100 
])ers()ns  in  the  State  who  derive  some  profit  from  tlieir  bees.  The 
Ih'c  keepers  who  reported  in  the  spring  count  of  lOOG  had  5,839  col- 
onies, or  an  averaire  of  5.5  colonies.  Massachusetts  needs  fewer  but 
more  ])roiicient  bee  keepers,  who  will  undertake  their  work  ahmg 
business  lines.  The  major  part  of  Massachusetts  is  quite  as  inviting 
and  pi-omisintr  as  Vermont  and  New  York  State,  where  bee  keeping 
is  more  })rotitably  conducted. 

There  are  but  three  persons  who  report  75  to  100  colonies  in  their 
yards,  and  but  two  who  have  more  than  100  colonies.  The  number  of 
amateur  bee  keepers  is  reduced  through  the  dropping  out  of  50  per 
cent  of  the  beginners  during  the  past  five  years. 

In  the  production  of  honey  and  possibly  of  wax  the  effect  of  an 
excess  of  semiproficient  bee  keepers  is  again  apparent.  In  190G  the 
honey  crop  reported  w  as  145,257  pounds,  which  is  the  largest  recorded 
for  the  State.  But  this  is  small  when  it  is  remembered  that  in  the 
AVest  single  individuals  frequently  produce  in  a  single  year  from  a 
<iuarter  to  a  third  more  honey  than  Massachusetts'  total  annual  har- 
vest. The  crop  would  have  been  materialh^  heavier  if  those  who 
reported  had  even  approached  the  standard  average  of  35  pounds 
instead  of  having  harvested  only  24  pounds.  This  lowering  of  the 
average  crop  is  in  a  large  measure  due  to  the  great  number  of  non- 
progressive small  bee  keepers  and  to  the  presence  of  bee  diseases. 

The  more  important  honey  sources,  as  reported  by  the  bee  keepers 
in  all  parts  of  the  State,  are  clovers,  golden-rod  and  asters,  fruit 
bloom,  basswood,  wild  raspberr}^  and  blackberi'y,  sumac,  and  locust. 
Some  other  plants,  such  as  clethra  and  huckleberry,  are  of  local 
importance  and  some  listed  as  of  minor  importance  are  probably 
underestimated. 

The  Italian  race  in  varying  degrees  of  purity  is  most  popular. 
The  (lerman  or  "  black  ''  still  persists,  but  is  rarely  found  pure. 

Twenty-live  j)er  cent  of  the  bee  keej)ers  still  use  box  hives  to  some 
extent.  The  prese^ice  of  box  hives  is  most  noticeable  in  the  back 
country,  where  modern  methods  penetrate  less  rajiidly.  Of  the  frame 
hive  types,  the  one  standard  for  the  country,  the  Langstroth,  is  most 
generally  used. 

The  loss  in  the  winter  of  r.>0G-7  was  10  to  17  per  cent,  which  taxed 
the  Ix'e  keepers  nearly  $5,000.  By  far  the  majority  winter  their  bees 
on  summer  stands,  protected  in  various  ways  or  unj)rotected.  A  few 
take  advantage  of  cellar  wintering,  but  most  of  those  who  follow 
this  practice  are  not  especially  proficient. 


BEE  KEEPING  IX  MASSACHUSETTS.  107 

A  thousand  colonies  or  more  are  annually  used  in  cucumber  green- 
houses. Since  practically  all  of  these  colonies  are  useless  after  com- 
ing out  of  the  houses,  there  is  a  constant  demand  and  sale  for  bees. 
Several  greenhouse  men  use  from  40  to  80  colonies  a  year.  The 
average  number  reported  is  8  colonies.  In  the  sale  of  bees  the  several 
counties,  exclusive  of  Barnstable,  Berkshire,  and  Suffolk,  sold  in  1906 
approximately  one-fifth  of  all  their  bees,  spring  count.  In  Plymouth 
County  the  sale  amounted  to  30  per  cent.  The  total  income  amoimted 
to  between  $5,000  and  $6,000.  The  queen-rearing  industry  is  limited 
to  a  few  persons  and  late  springs  make  it  difficult  to  compete  with 
southern  producers. 

The  chief  enemy  reported  is  the  bee  moth.  There  is  great  doubt, 
however,  if  the  damage  attributed  is  really  and  primarily  due  to  it. 
There  is,  on  the  other  hand,  sufficient  reason  to  believe  that  disease 
is  primary  and  that  destruction  by  the  moth  is  secondary.  Gipsy 
and  brown-tail  moths  are  also  reported  as  interfering  severely  with 
apiculture  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  State. 

Massachusetts  is  particularly  fortimate  and  in  some  ways  in 
advance  of  other  communities  in  her  bee  keepers'  institutions.  Xot 
alone  do  local  societies  aim  to  promote  bee  keeping,  but  the  State 
Board  of  Agriculture,  State  Experiment  Station,  and  Agricultural 
Station  as  well,  are  deeply  interested  in  the  advancement  of  api- 
culture. 

A  LIST  OF  THE  MORE  IMPORTANT  ARTICLES  ON  BEE  KEEPING  IN 

MASSACHUSETTS. 


1906.  Massachusetts  field  uieetiug.     Americau  Bee-Keeper,  X\'I.   i»i».  ISS- 
189. 


VJiJS.  Worcester  County  (Mass.)  convention.    American  Bee-Keeper.  XVI 1 1, 
p.  43. 


1908,  Has  annual   meeting:.     Worcester   County  Bee   Keepers'   Association 

Elects  Officers.    American  Bee-Keei)er,  XVIII,  pp.  40-41. 
Adams,  Geo.  W. 

1906.  Farm  bee  keei^ers   [in  Massachusetts].     American  Bee-Keeper,  XVI, 

pp.  88-89. 
1906.  Massachusetts  bee  keeping  in   1(>44.      Supply   manufacturing  before 
the   clays    of   new-fangled    fixtures.     American    Bee-Keeper,    XVI, 
pp.  180-181. 
Babcock,  L.  B. 

1855.  Bees.    Xorfolk  [County].    The  agriculture  of  Massachusetts  as  shown 
in  returns  of  the  agricultural  societies,  1854.     Prepared  by  Charles 
L.  Flint.     Bound  with  Second  Annual  Report  of  the  Secretary  of 
Massiichusetts  Board  of  Agriculture.     Boston.     Pp.  403-405. 
Brooks.  Jennie. 

1909.  Memories  of  Langstroth   by   one  who   knew   him   in   her  childhood. 

Bee  Keepers'  Review,  XXII,  Xo.  2,  pp.  3r>-42. 
Canning,  Josiah  D.,  Chairman :  Cowles,  David  S.  ;  Weight,  Asahel. 

1854.  Bees  and  honey.  The  agriculture  of  Massachusetts,  as  shown  in  the 
returns  of  the  agricultural  societies,  1853.  Prepared  by  Charles 
L.  Flint.  Bound  with  First  Annual  Report  of  the  Secretary  of 
Massachusetts  Board  of  Agriculture.    Boston.    Pp.  390-393. 


108         MISCELLANEOUS  PAPERS  ON  APICULTURE. 

Dkwey.  E.  IL 

r.K»7.  K.  II.  Dowoy's  doinj^s.    Aniorican  litH'-Kccpor,  XVII.  p.  85 
IIMJS.  Yes;  KelcK.itc  tho  box  hive.     American  liee-Keeper,  XVIII,  pp.  42^3. 
Eddy,  Dk.  IIknky. 

1S5S.  IUh»  cuUuiv.     Abstracts  of  returns  of  the  agricultural   societies  of 
Massiichusetts,  lsr)T:  edited  by  Charles  L.  Flint.    Bound  with  Fifth 
Annual   Kcj'oi't  <>f  the  Secretary  of  Massachusetts  Board  of  Agri- 
culture.    Pp.  L'TS-l>Si).     Illustrated.     Boston. 
Ellsworth,  J.  Lkwis. 

IJMn).  Bee  keeping;  in  Massachusetts.  Annual  Kei)ort  of  the  Secretary  of 
Massachusetts  State  Board  of  Agriculture,  1IK).S. 

ESTABBOOK,  A.   II. 

1!M)S.  Worcester  County  bee  keeiK?rs'  meeting.  American  Bee-Keeper, 
XVI II,  p.  17G. 

[ESTAIIROOK,  A.   II.  i 

11M>7.  Schedule  of  the   bee  show  of  the   Worcester  County   Bee  Keeiiers' 
Association,   Sept.  13  and  14,  11)07.     American  Bee-Keei)er,  XVII, 
pp.  lSiy-190. 
Flint,  Chaklks  L. 

IStu;.  Thirteenth  Annual  lieport  of  the  Secretary  of  Massachusetts  Board 
of  Ajxriculture  for  lS(r).     Boston.     Pp.  314-320.     Apicultural  statis- 
tics by  counties  in  I'art  II  of  the  Kei)ort,  Abstracts  of  lieturus  of 
the  Agricultural  Societies  of  Massachusetts,  18G6. 
(iATKs,  Burton  N.,  and  Hodge,  C.  F. 

11)04,  1905.  Bee  keeping:  How  to  meet  its  dangers  and  difficulties.     Mass. 
Crop  Report,  XVII,  No.  G,  October,  VJ04,  pp.  30-40.     Fifty-second 
Annual    Beport    of   the    Secretary    of    Massachusetts    State   Board 
of  Agriculture.    Pp.  411-42G.    Boston  :  1905. 
(iATKs,  Burton  N. 

190G.  The  first  annual  bee  show  of  the  Worcester  Co.  (Mass.)  Bee  Keepers' 
Association.    American  Bee  Journal,  XLVI,  pp.  946-947. 

190G.  An  interesting  meeting.  Report  of  the  first  of  the  series  of  winter 
meetings  of  the  Worcester  County  (Mass.)  Bee  Keepers'  Associa- 
tion.    American  Bee-Keei)er,  XVI,  pp.  200-2(51. 

IJKX;.  Worcester  County  Association.  American  Bee-Keei)fer,  XVI,  pp. 
97-99. 

1!>()T.  Status  of  bee  keeping  in  Massachusetts  in  190G.  American  Bee- 
Keeper,  XN'II,  pp.  79-81. 

11)07.  March  meeting  of  the  Worcester  County  (Mass.)  Bee  Keepers'  Asso- 
ciation.    American  Bee-Keeper,  XVII,  pp.  88-90. 

19(J7,  ltK)S.  Bee  keei»iug:  Some  suggestions  for  its  advancement  in  Massa- 
chusetts. Massachusetts  Crop  Report,  XX,  No.  4,  August,  1907,  pp. 
2(h-.3(J.  Fifty-fifth  Annual  Report  of  the  Secretary  of  Massachu- 
setts State  Board  of  Agriculture,  1907.    Boston :  1<X)8.    Pp.  370-383. 

11M>7.  Relegate  the  box   hives.     American   Bee-Keeper.   XVII.   pp.   271-273. 

r.>o.s.  IUm'  diseases  in  Massachusetts.  Bulletin  75,  I'art  III.  Bureau  of 
Entomology,  IT.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture;  Bulletin  124,  Massa- 
chusetts Agricultural  College.     12  pp. 

l'.K>'.».  A    UM'thod   of  sei'uring  apicultural   statistics.     Journal   of   Economic 
Entomology,  II,  pp.  117-120. 
Latham,  Allan. 

1!K)8.  Is  it  well  to  relegate  the  bo.x  hive?     American  Bee-K(H'per,  XVIII, 
pp.  2^. 
MiLi.KK.  Akthir  C. 

19(m;.  a  uni(iue  systenh     American  Be<'-KeeiH'r,  XVI,  pp.  20(>-210. 

P.km;.  Worcester  County  btH»  keeix'''-**'  show.  American  Bee-Keeper,  XVI, 
pp.  231-2;i.3. 

l'.K»7.  The  Wiswell-Richardson  apiary.  Wi»st  Medford,  Mass.  American 
Bee-Keeper,  XVII,  p.  S. 

11M)7.  The  .Massachusetts  society.    American  Bee-Keeper,  XVII.  pp.  100-101. 

11K)7.  The  .Massiichusetts  lield  meet.     American  Bee-Keeper,  XVII,  p.  206. 

1'.K>7.  I'lie  .Massjichusetts  meeting.  American  Bee-Keei>er,  XVII,  pp.  220- 
221 

I'.KiT.  Protltabh'  meeting  at  Worcester,  Mass.  American  Bee-Keeper,  XVII, 
PI..  239-241. 

1IM)7.  Ob.idlah   Bn»wn  Hadwen.     American  Bee-Keeper,  XVII,  p.  282. 

1908.  Massjichusetts  bee  keepers.     American  Bee-Keeper,  XVIII,  p.  103, 


BEE    KEEPING  IX    MASSACHUSETTS.  109 

[Miller,  Abthub  C] 

1908.  Good    work    in    Massachusetts.      American    Bee-Keeper,    XVIII,    pp. 
137-13S. 
Paige,  James  B. 

15X)3,  1904.  Bee   keeping:  Its  pleasures  and   profits.     Massachusetts   Crop 
Report,  Bui.  Xo.  3,  July.  l^KDS,  pp.  30-40.     Fifty-first  Annual 
Report   of  the   Secretary   of  Massachusetts   State   Board   of 
Agriculture.    Boston :  1ck:>4.    pp.  399-111.    Illustrated. 
1906.  Wood's  bee  disease.     American  Bee-Keeper.  XVI,  pp.  69-70. 

1906.  Death  of  James  Fitts  Wood,  of  Athol,  Mass.    American  Bee-Keeper, 

XVI,  pp.  73-74. 

1907.  The  first  principles  of  bee  keeping.     Nature  Leaflet  No.  84,  Massa- 

chusetts State  Board  of  Agriculture.    10  pp.     Illustrated. 
Rice,  David,  Chairman. 

1861.  Bee  culture.     Hampshire   [County]   Abstract  of  the  returns  of  the 
agricultural    societies    of    Massachusetts    for    1860.      Bound    with 
Eighth  Annual  Report  of  the  Secretary  of  Massachusetts  Board  of 
Agriculture  for  1860,  pp.  22<:)-234.     Boston. 
Smith.  Jerome  V.  C  M.  D. 

1831.  An    essay    on    the   practicability   of   cultivating   the    honey    bee,    in 
maritime  towns  and  cities,  as  a  source  of  domestic  economy  and 
profit.      Boston :  Perkins    and    Marvin ;    New    York.      Frontispiece 
and  cuts.     106  pp. 
Smith,  Edmund.  Chairman. 

1864.  Bee  culture.     Essex    [County].     Abstract  of  returns  of  the  agricul- 
tural societies  of  Massachusetts,  1S63.     Edited  by  Charles  L.  Flint. 
Bound  together  with  the  Eleventh  Annual  Reix)rt  of  the  Secretary 
of  Massachusetts  Board  of  Agriculture,  pp.  221-229.     Boston. 
Thacheb.  James.  M.  D. 

1829.  A  practical  treatise  on  the  management  of  oees :  And  the  establish- 
ment of  apiaries,  with  the  best  method  of  destroying  and  prevent- 
ing the  depredations  of  the  bee  moth.    Boston.    164  pp. 
Wright,  W.  D. 

1908.  Equipment   and   manipulation   of   an  apiary   for   comb   honey.     De- 

livered at  the  Worcester  County  Massachusetts  bee  keepers'  asso- 
ciation. April  11,  1908.    American  Bee-Keeper,  XVIII,  pp.  115-116. 
[Wright,  W.  D.] 

1908.  Foul  brood.     Worcester  Telegram,  April  12.     American  Bee-Keeper, 
XVIII,  pp.  120-121. 


INDEX 


Page. 

Acacia,  sources  of  honey  in  Hawaii 48 

Acer  spp.     (See  Maple.) 

Achrom  grisella,  destructive  to  stored  comb 73 

work  in  colony  infected  with  American  foul  brood 21 

JEsculus  spp.     {See  Horse  chestnut.; 

Agave  sisalana,  source  of  honey  in  Hawaii 49 

Age,  relation  to  bee  diseases 34 

Alder,  black.     {See  Clethra.) 

period  of  nectar  secretion  in  central  region  of  Massachusetts 95 

source  of  honey  in  Massachusetts 93 

tag,  period  of  nectar  secretion  in  Berkshire  region  of  Massachusetts 94 

white.     {See  Clethra.) 

Alfalfa  honey,  rapid  granulation _ 9 

source  of  honey  in  Hawaii 49 

Alfilaria.     (See  Erodium  cicutarium  and  E.  moschatum.) 

Algarroba  honey  in  Hawaii 47^8 

introduction  into  Hawaii 47 

"Alii."     (See  Dodonaea  liscosa  var.  spathulata.) 
Alligator  pear.     (See  Per  sea  gratissima.) 
^Zniwspp.     {See  Xlder.) 

Amelanchier  hotryapium,  source  of  honey  in  Massachusetts 93 

Andrenidae  as  pollenizing  agents 70 

Aphis  sacchari,  source  of  honeydew  honey  in  Hawaii 50 

sugar  cane.     (See  Aphis  sacchari.) 

Apiaries,  badly  proportioned  distribution  a  source  of  loss 75-76 

Apiculture.     {See  Bee  keeping.) 

Apidae  as  pollenizing  agents 69 

Apis  mellifera.     {See  Bee.) 

Apple,  period  of  nectar  secretion  in  central  region  of  Massachusetts 94 

source  of  honey  in  Massachusetts 90,  93 

Aquilegia  canadensis,  source  of  honey  in  Massachusetts 93 

Arctium  lappa.     {See  Burdock.) 

Argemone  mexicana,  source  of  honey  in  Hawaii 49 

Arnica  montana,  source  of  honey  in  Massachusetts 93 

Artemisia,  source  of  honey  in  Hawaii 49 

Asckpias  spp.     (5^6  Milkweed.) 

Aspergillus  pollini,  supposed  relation  to  '"  pickled  brood  " 37 

Asters,  importance  as  honey  plants  in  Cape  Cod  region  of  Massachusetts 95 

period  of  nectar  secretion  in  Berkshire  region  of  Massachusetts 94 

Cape  Cod  region  of  Massachusetts 95 

central  region  of  Massachusetts 94 

source  of  honey  in  Massachusetts 90,  92 

Avocado.     (See  Persea  gratissima.) 

Ill 


112  MISCELLANEOUS  PAPEKS  ON   APICULTURE. 

Pago. 

Bacillus  alvei,  supposed  relation  to  European  foul  brood 41 

lanac,  exciting  cause  of  American  foul  brood 20,  24,  37,  38,  39-40,  41, 58 

"  IV'  possible  exciting  cause  of  European  foul  brocxl 41 

Bacteria,  nature,    distribution,   methods  of  studying  them,    results   of  their 

activity 36-37 

of  brood  diseases,  heating  honey  for  their  destruction 12 

relation  to  bee  diseases 36-37 

Bacteriological  needs  of  beekeeping  in  United  States 77 

Banana,  source  of  honey  in  Hawaii 49 

Barberry,  source  of  honey  in  Massachusetts 93 

Basswood  (see  also  Linden). 

defoliation  by  gipsy  moth  and  brown-tail  moth 104 

period  of  nectar  secretion  in  Berkshire  region  of  Massachusetts 94 

source  of  honey  in  Massachusetts 91,  93 

Bee  breeding,  importance 78 

brush,  use 5 

colonies  sold  in  Massachusetts 102-103 

disease  in  Hawaii  resembling  "pickled  brood" 57 

inspection 31 

status  in  United  States 75 

survey  in  Hawaii 56-57 

diseases  can  be  controlled 30-31 

cause,  relation  to  treatment 33^2 

causes,  exciting 35-37 

predisposing 34-35 

damage  therefrom 25-26 

diagnosis 38 

etiology  (cause) 34-37 

relation  to  treatment 33-42 

heating  honey  for  destruction  of  bacteria 12 

in  Massachusetts 23-32, 104-105 

introduction  not  recent 27-28 

present  extent 26-27 

lo68  to  bee  keepers 73-75 

nature,  methods  of  spread,  means  of  preventing  introduction  into 

Hawaiian  Islands 57-58 

relation  of  etiology  (cause)  to  treatment,  summary  and  conclu- 
sions          42 

spread 29-30 

treatment 31-32 

curative 39 

preventive 38-39 

escape,  use 5-6 

keeping  in  greenhouses  and  the  spread  of  bee  diseases 29-30 

Hawaii 43-58 

bee  keepers'  association 44 

rights 45 

disease  survey 56-58 

extent  of  industry 45-47 

honey  sources 47-54 

introduction  of  honey  plants 54 

methods  of  management 44 

publications  thereon 43-44 

wax  production 54-56 


INDEX.  113 

Page. 

Bee  keeping  in  Massachusetts 81-109 

apiaries,  number  and  size 83-84 

articles  thereon 107-109 

bee  diseases 23-32, 104-105 

bees  in  cucumber  greenhouses 99-102 

colonies  per  bee  keeper 84,  86 

increase  in  number 87 

conventions 105 

distribution  of  bees 86-87 

early  records 81-83 

enemies  of  bees 703-104 

experience  of  bee  keepers 8 1-85 

historical  sketch 81-84 

hives  used 97-98 

honey  production 87-89 

sources 89-93 

instruction  in  bee  keeping 105 

market  for  bees 102-103 

organizations  of  bee  keepers 105 

pasturage,  extent  and  capabilities 89 

periods  of  nectar  secretion  in  different  localities.  93-96 

queen  trade 103 

races  kept 96-97 

status 23-24 

summary 106-107 

wax  production 89 

wintering  methods 98-99 

mortality 99 

United  States 59-80 

associations,  number 69 

breeders  of  queens,  number 69 

colonies,  number  and  value,  June  1, 1900 63 

per  farm 60,  79 

honey  production,  average  annual  value 61,  79 

imports  and  exports  of  honey  and  wax 64-68,  79 

journals,  number 69 

loss,  sources 71-76 

needs 76 

possibilities 76 

production  of  honey  and  wax,  1840-1900 62-63 

scope 61-71 

statistics  of  Twelfth  Census 62-63 

summary 79-80 

wax  production,  average  annual  value 61,  79 

introduction  of  Langstroth  hives 83 

origin  of  industry  in  United  States 81-82 

winter  losses 72 

keepers,  amateur  versus  experienced,  in  Massachusetts 85 

professional 60-61,  80 

association  in  Hawaii 44 

associations  in  Massachusetts 105 

United  States,  number 69 

years  experience  in  Massachusetts 84-85 


114  MISCELLANEOUS  PAPERS  ON   APICULTURE. 

Page. 
Boo  moths  (sec  also  Wax  moths,  (Va/Ztrm  mellonella,  and  Achroia  grisella). 

in  New  Enj^land 83 

])ollinalion  of  cucumbers 99-102 

rights  in  Hawaii 45 

vahie  as  pollcnizin<i:  afj:ent 69-71 

Boos  and  queens,  ])urchasinfj:,  how  to  avoid  introduction  of  bee  diseases 30 

Banat,  in  Massachusetts 97 

( 'arniolan,  in  Ahissachusetts 96 

Caucasian,  in  Massachusetts 97 

C^^irian,  in  Massachusetts 97 

distribution  in  Massiichusetts 86-87 

enemies  in  Massachusetts 103-104 

(ierman,  in  Massiichusetts 96-97 

in  <;reenhouses  in  Massachusetts 99-102 

Italian,  in  ^hissachusetts 96-97 

introduction  into  New  En<i:lan(l  in  seventeenth  century 81-82 

price  in  Massachusetts 103 

Punic,  in  Massachusetts 97 

queen  trade  in  Massachusetts 103 

races  in  Massachusetts 96-97 

robbinj^,  prevention 6,  7 

stmy,  danger  of  infecting  colonies  therefrom 30 

Berheris  s\)\) .     (iSce  Barberry.) 
Bidens  Ixvis.     {See  Sunflower,  brook.) 

pilosa,  source  of  honey  in  Hawaii 49 

Blackberry,  period  of  nectar  secretion  in  Cape  Cod  region  of  Massachusetts 95 

wild,  source  of  honey  in  Massachusetts 91,  93 

Blueberry,  source  of  honey  in  Massachusetts 93 

Bombus,     {See  Bumblebees.) 

Botanical  needs  of  bee  keeping  in  United  States 77 

Brassica  sj)p.     {See  Mustard,  wild.) 

Breeders  of  queens  in  United  States,  number 69 

Breeding  bees,  importance 78 

Brood  diseases  of  bees.     {See  Bee  diseases.) 

manipulation  in  extracted  honey  production 3 

Browne,  C.  A.,  paper,  "Methods  of  Honey  Testing  for  Bee  Keepers" 16-18 

Brown-tail  moth.     (See  Euproctis  chrysorrhoea .) 

Buckwheat,  period  of  nectar  secretion  in  Berkshire  region  of  Massachusetts...  •      94 

central  region  of  Massachusetts 94 

source  of  honey  in  Massachusetts 91, 93 

Bumblebees  as  ])ollenizing  agents 70 

Burdock,  source  of  honey  in  Massachusetts 93, 104 

Burr  clover,  California.     (See  Mcdivago  dcnticulata.) 

marigold,  period  of  nectar  secretion  in  Cape  Cod  region  of  Massachusetts.  95 

Buttercups,  source  of  honey  in  Massachusetts 93 

Button  bush.     (See  Ccphalanthus  occidciitalis.) 
( 'a.stanea  dentata.     {See  Chestnut.) 

(Jalalpa  bignonioidrs,  source  of  honey  in  Hawaii 48 

speriom,  source  of  honey  in  Hawaii 48 

Catnip,  source  (»f  honey  in  Massachusetts 93 

('entinthiis  aincrirauuji,  source  of  honey  in  Massachusetts 93 

Census  of  1900,  stati.sti<\son  bee  keeping 62-63 

Cephalanthus  occidentalU,  source  of  honey  in  Massachusetts 93 


INDEX.  115 

Page. 

Cestrum  diumum,  source  of  honey  in  Hawaii 49 

Chemical  needs  of  bee  keeping  in  United  States 77 

Cherry,  period  of  nectar  secretion  in  central  region  of  Massachusetts 94 

rum.     (-S'ee  Cherry,  wild.) 

source  of  honey  in  Massachusetts 90,  93 

wild,  period  of  nectar  secretion  in  Cape  Cod  region  of  Massachusetts. .  95 

source  of  honey  in  Massachusetts 93 

Chestnut,  period  of  nectar  secretion  in  Berkshire  region  of  Massachusetts 94 

source  of  honey  and  pollen  in  Massachusetts 92,  93 

Chokecherry.     {See  Cherry,  wild.) 

Citrus,  sources  of  honey  in  Hawaii 49 

Clematis  paniculata,  period  of  nectar  secretion  in  central  region  of  Massachusetts.  95 

wild,  period  of  nectar  secretion  in  central  region  of  Massachusetts 95 

Clethra,  period  of  nectar  secretion  in  Cape  Cod  region  of  Massachusetts 96 

source  of  honey  in  Massachusetts 92,  93,  96 

Climate,  relation  to  bee  diseases 35 

Clover,  alsike,  source  of  honey  in  Massachusetts 90,  92 

crimson,  source  of  honey  in  Massachusetts 90,  92 

period  of  nectar  secretion  in  Berkshire  region  of  Massachusetts 94 

central  region  of  Massachusetts 94 

red,  source  of  honey  in  Massachusetts 90,  92 

sweet,  white  (see  also  Melilotus  alha) . 

period  of  nectar  secretion  in  Berkshire  region  of  Massa- 
chusetts    94 

source  of  honey  in  Massachusetts 90 

j'^ellow  (see  also  Melilotus  officinalis). 

source  of  honey  in  Massachusetts 90 

white,  period  of  nectar  secretion  in  Cape  Cod  region  of  Massachusetts. .  95 

source  of  honey  in  Hawaii 49 

Massachusetts 90,  92 

yellow,  source  of  honey  in  Massachusetts 92 

' '  Cocoons  " 5 

Coleoptera  as  pollenizing  agents 69,  70 

Columbine.     (See  Aquilegia  canadensis.) 

Comb  honey,  average  number  of  pounds  produced  in  United  States 61-62 

Combs,  shallow  extracting 4—5 

Conventions  of  bee  keepers  in  Massachusetts 105 

Cowpeas.     (See  Vigna  catjang.) 

Cranberry,  period  of  nectar  secretion  in  Cape  Cod  region  of  Massachusetts 95 

source  of  honey  in  Massachusetts 93 

Crocuses,  period  of  nectar  secretion  in  central  region  of  Massachusetts 95 

Crop  plants,  sources  of  honey  in  Hawaii 49 

Crystallization.     {See  Granulation.) 

Cucumber,  pollination  by  honey  bee 99-102 

source  of  honey  in  Hawaii 49 

Massachusetts 93 

wild.     (See  Micrampelis  lobata.) 
Cucumis  spp.     {See  Cucumber.) 

Dandelion,  period  of  nectar  secretion  in  Cape  Cod  region  of  Massachusetts 95 

source  of  honey  and  pollen  in  Massachusetts 92,  93 

Diptera  as  pollenizing  agents 69,  70 

Disease,  definition  of  term 33 

preexisting,  possible  relation  to  bee  diseases 35 


116  MISCELLANEOUS  PAPERS  ON   APICULTURE. 

Page. 
Diseases  of  bees.     {See  Bee  diseases;  Foul  brood,  American;  and  Foul  brood, 
European.) 

Disinfection  of  hive  materials  against  boo  diseases 32 

tools  and  hands  after  manipulating  diseased  bees 29 

Dodonsea  viscosa  var.  spathulata,  source  of  honey  in  Hawaii 49 

Drug  treatment  for  bee  diseases 39, 40 

Economic  needs  of  bee  keeping  in  United  States 77-78 

Educational  needs  of  bee  keeping  in  United  States 78-79 

Eldorborry,  source  of  honey  in  Massachusetts 93 

Elm,  defoliation  by  gipsy  moth  and  bro\\Ti-tail  moth 104 

pericxi  of  nectar  secretion  in  central  region  of  Massachusetts 95 

source  of  honey  in  Massachusetts 93 

Erechtites  hieraci/olia.     (See  Fireweed.) 

Eriobotrya  japonica,  source  of  honey  in  Hawaii 49 

Erodium  cicutarium,  source  of  honey  in  Hawaii 49 

moschatum,  source  of  honey  in  Hawaii 49 

Erythrina  monosperma,  source  of  honey  in  Hawaii 48 

"Etiology,  "  definition  of  term 33 

Eucalyptus,  source  of  honey  in  Hawaii 48 

Eugenia  jambos,  source  of  honey  in  Hawaii 48 

Euproctis  chrysorrhoea,  damage  to  bee-keeping  industry  in  Massachusetts 104 

Extracting  room  or  house  for  honey 6 

Extractor.     (See  Honey  extractor.) 
Fagopyrum  spp.     {See  Buckwheat.) 

Feeding  honey  to  bees,  danger  of  spreading  brood  diseases 29 

Fertilization.     {See  Pollenization.) 

Filaree.     (See  Erodium  cicutarium  and  E.  moschatum.) 

Fireweed,  period  of  nectar  secretion  and  importance  as  source  of  honey  in  Cape 

Cod  region  of  Massachusetts 95 

Food  and  drugs  act  of  June  30,  1906,  and  Hawaiian  honeys 44,  50-52 

honey  adulteration 1-2 

relation  to  bee  diseases 35 

Forage  plants,  sources  of  honey  in  Hawaii 49 

Foul  brood,  American,  age  of  larvae  with  relation  thereto 34 

and  wax  moths 19-22 

cause,  excitmg 24,  37, 38,  39-40 

causes,  predisposing 34-35 

description 24 

in  Massachusetts,  intro<luction  into  State 27-28 

present  extent 26-27 

preexisting  disease  possibly  a  predispasing  factor 35 

prevention 38-39 

relation  of  cause  to  treatment 39-40 

sex  of  larvae  with  relation  thereto 34 

treatment 38-39, 40 

European,  age  of  larvie  with  relation  thereto 34 

cause,  ex<'iting,  unknown 37 

causes,  predisposing 34-35 

description 24, 25 

in  Massachusetts,  intrcnluction  into  State 28 

present  extent 26-27 

loss  therefrom  in  Now  York  Stale 74-75 

relation  of  cause  to  treat niont 41 

sex  of  larvee  with  relation  thereto 34 


INDEX.  117 

Page. 
Fragaria  spp.     {See  Strawberry.) 

Fruit  bloom,  period  of  nectar  secretion  in  Berkshire  region  of  Massachusetts. . .  94 

central  region  of  Massachusetts 94 

source  of  honey  in  Massachusetts 90,  93 

spoiled  by  gipsy  moth  and  brown-tail  moth 104 

industry,  value  of  honey  bee  thereto 71 

Fungi,  relation  to  bee  diseases '. 37 

Galleria  mellonella  destructive  to  stored  comb 73 

enemy  to  bees  in  Massachusetts 103-104 

work  in  combs  infected  with  American  foul  brood 20-21 

Gates,  Burton  N.,  paper,  "Bee  Diseases  in  Massachusetts " 23-32 

' '  Bee  Keeping  in  Massachusetts  " 81, 109 

Gaylussacia  spp.     {See  Huckleberry.) 

Gentiana  crinita,  source  of  honey  in  Massachusetts 93 

Gentian,  fringed.     (See  Gentiana  crinita.) 

Geranium,  wild,  source  of  honey  in  Massachusetts 93 

Gill-over-the-ground,  source  of  honey  in  Massachusetts 92,  93 

Gipsy  moth.     (See  Porthetria  dispar.) 

Glecoma  hederacea.     {See  Gill-over-the-ground.) 

Glucose,  detection  in  honey 17 

Glycerin,  use  as  adulterant  of  honey 12 

Goldenrod  (see  also  Solidago  sempervirens) . 

period  of  nectar  secretion  in  Berkshire  region  of  Massachusetts ....  94 

Cape  Cod  region  of  Massachusetts ....  95 

central  region  of  Massachusetts 94 

source  of  honey  in  Massachusetts 90,  92, 104 

Gooseberry,  source  of  honey  in  Iilassachusetts 93 

Granulation  of  honey 9-12, 14-15 

acceleration 13-14 

retardation 13 

Grass,  carpet.     (See  Lippia  repens.) 

"Pili."     (See  Heteropogon  contortus.) 

Greenhouses,  cucumber,  bee  keeping  therein  in  Massachusetts 29-30,  99-102 

Guava,  source  of  honey  in  Hawaii 49 

Hsematoxylon  campechianum,  source  of  honey  in  Hawaii 48 

Halictidse  as  pollenizing  agents 70 

Hamamelis  virginiana,  source  of  honey  in  Massachusetts 93 

"Hau"  tree.     (See  Paritium  tiliaceum.) 

Helianthus  spp.     {See  Sunflower.) 

Hemiptera  as  pollenizing  agents 70 

Heredity,  relation  to  bee  diseases 34 

Heteropogon  contortus,  source  of  honey  in  Hawaii 49 

Hickory,  source  of  honey  in  Massachusetts 93 

Hicoria  spp.     {See  Hickory.) 

' '  Hila  hila,"  source  of  honey  in  Hawaii 49 

Hive  for  extracted  honey  production 3 

Langstroth,  introduction 83 

Hives  used  in  Massachusetts 97-98 

Hoarhound,  cut-leafed  water,  period  of  nectar  secretion  and  importance  as 

source  of  honey  in  Cape  Cod  region  of  Massachusetts 95 

Honey,  abnormal 14 

adulteration,  chemical  detection , , 1-2, 16-18 


118  MISCELLANEOUS   PAPERS   ON    APICULTURE. 

Page. 

Honey,  -.vjiv  as  iiffcrtinfj;  chomieal  composilion 11-12 

Alpirroba,  in  Hawaii,  extraction 47-48 

bee.     (See  Bee.) 

bricks 14 

"candied."  production 13-14 

coniferous 14 

detection  of  cane  8up:ar  therein 17 

fi;lucose  therein 17 

invert  sugar  therein 17-18 

determination  of  moisture  therein 16-17 

extracted,  production,  advantages 2-3 

and  care 1-15 

brood  manipulation 3-4 

"candied  "  honey  i)roducti()n 13-14 

extracting  room  or  house 6 

extractor  and  its  use 7 

granulation  of  honey 9-12 

hive  best  adapted  therefor 3 

method 3-7 

packing 12-13 

perforated  zinc  queen-excluding  board  and  its 

use 5 

removing  honey  from  hive 5-6 

ripening  honey 7-9 

tiering 4-5 

uncapping  the  honey 6-7 

extractor  and  its  use 7 

extractors,  solar,  in  Hawaii 47^8 

fermentation  or  souring 8,  9 

flavor  of  that  from  fruit  bloom 90 

floral,  in  Hawaii , 47-49 

flow,  "locality  differences" 5 

from  honeydew  and  algarroba,  granulation  test 52 

gate 9 

granulation,  acceleration '. 13-14 

retardation 13 

heating  for  destruction  of  disease  bacteria 12 

Herzfelt's  artificial 10 

high-purity  types 14 

honeydew 14 

blends,  ])olarization,  and  analyses 51-52 

chemical  composition 50-52 

color  and  flavor 50 

with  reference  to  food  and  drugs  act  of  1!)0() 50-52 

imports  and  <'xports 64-68,  79 

liijuefaction  before  bottling 10 

low-purity  types 14 

normal 14 

other  than  floral,  in  Hawaii 49-54 

packing 12-13 

plants.     {See  Honey  sources.) 

production  in  Ma.ssiichusetts 87-89 

United  States,  average  annual  value 61,  79 

statistics  of  Twelfth  Census 62-63 


INDEX.  119 

Page. 

Honey,  removal  from  hive. 5-6 

ripening 7-9 

sources  in  Hawaii , 47-54 

Massachusetts 89-93 

strained,  definition,  wrong  use  of  term 1 

tariff  schedules,  acts  of  1842  to  1897 64 

testing,  apparatus  and  methods  for  bee  keepers 16-18 

types 14-15 

uncapping 6-7 

Honeydew,  extra-floral  plant,  possible  source  of  honey  in  Hawaii 53 

honey.     {See  Honey,  honeydew.) 

of  insects,  source  of  honey  in  Hawaii 49-53 

Honeys,  American,  chemical  analysis  and  composition,  reference  to  publication  12, 16 

flavors 8-9 

granulation 9-12, 14-15 

Honeysuckle,  Tartarian,  source  of  honey  in  Massachusetts 92,  93 

Horsechestnut,  source  of  honey  in  Massachusetts 93 

Huckleberry,  period  of  nectar  secretion  in  Cape  Cod  region  of  Massachusetts. .  95 

source  of  honey  in  Massachusetts 93 

Hymenoptera  as  poUenizing  agents 69,  70 

"Hima."     (See  5iWa  spp.) 

Inkberry,  Chinese.     (See  Cestrum  diurnum.) 

Insect  honeydew,  source  of  honey  in  Hawaii 49-53 

Insects,  pollenization  of  plants  thereby 69-71 

Inspection  against  bee  diseases 31,  75 

Ipomxa  pes-caprx,  source  of  honey  in  Hawaii 49 

spp.,  sources  of  honey  in  Hawaii 49 

* '  Kia we . ' '     (See  Algarroba . ) 

Knives  for  uncapping  honey. 6 

Knotweed,  pink,  period  of  nectar  secretion  in  Cape  Cod  region  of  Massachusetts.  95 

source  of  honey  in  Massachusetts 92,  93 

"Koa."     (See  Acsicisi.) 

Lantana,  a  plant  pest  in  Hawaii 54 

source  of  honey  in  Hawaii 49 

Lathyrus  tingitanus,  source  of  honey  in  Hawaii 49 

"Lauki."     (See  Bidens  pilosa.) 

Leafhopper,  sugar-cane,  damage  to  sugar  cane 52-53 

source  of  honeydew  honey  in  Hawaii 50,  52-53 

Lemon,  source  of  honey  in  Hawaii 49 

Lepidoptera  as  pollenizing  agents 69 

Lime,  source  of  honey  in  Hawaii 49 

Linden  (see  also  Basswood). 

American,  period  of  nectar  secretion  in  central  region  of  Massachusetts.  94 

European,  period  of  nectar  secretion  in  central  region  of  Massachusetts.  94 

Lippia  repens,  source  of  honey  in  Hawaii 49 

Locust,  period  of  nectar  secretion  in  Berkshire  region  of  Massachusetts 94 

Cape  Cod  region  of  Massachusetts 95 

source  of  honey  in  Massachusetts 91,  93 

Logwood.     (See  Hsematoxylon  campechianum.) 
Lonicera  tatarica.     (See  Honeysuckle,  Tartarian.) 
Loquat.     (See  Eriobotrya  japonica.) 

Lupin,  blue  and  yellow,  source  of  honey  in  Hawaii 49 

Lycopus  americanus.     (See  Hoarhound,  cut-leafed  water.) 


120  MISCELLANEOUS  PAPERS  ON   APICULTURE. 

Page. 

Malmstrum  tricuspidatmn,  Hoiirre  of  honey  in  Hawaii 49 

' '  Manian  i . "     ( See  Sophorn  chrysophylla . ) 

Mangrove,  black,  Hource  of  honey  in  Hawaii 48 

Philippine,  introduction  into  Hawaii  to  be  tried 48 

Maple,  defoliation  by  gipsy  moth  and  brown-tail  moth 104 

hard,  period  of  nectar  secretion  in  Berkshire  region  of  Massachusetts. . .  94 

soft,  period  of  nectar  secretion  in  Berkshire  region  of  Massachusetts 94 

central  region  of  Massachusetts 95 

source  of  honey  in  Massachusetts 91,  93 

pollen  for  bees. 91 

Medicago  denticulata,  source  of  honey  in  Hawaii 49 

Melilotus  alba  (see  also  Clover,  sweet,  white). 

source  of  honey  in  Massachusetts 90 

officinalis,     (See  also  Clover,  sweet,  yellow.) 

source  of  honey  in  Massachusetts 90 

Melons,  source  of  honey  in  Hawaii 49 

Mentha  spp,     (See  Mints  and  Catnip.) 
Mesquite,  Texas.     (See  Prosopis  glandulosa.) 

Metrosideros  polymorpha,  source  of  honey  in  Hawaii 48 

Micrampelis  lobata,  source  of  honey  in  Massachusetts 93 

Micro-organisms,  relation  to  bee  diseases 35-37 

Milkweed,  period  of  nectar  secretion  in  Berkshire  region  of  Massachusetts 94 

source  of  honey  in  Massachusetts 91,  92,  93 

Mints,  source  of  honey  in  Massachusetts 91,  92,  93 

Moisture,  determination  in  honey 17 

MusaBpp.     (5ee  Banana.)  ^ 

Mustard,  wild,  period  of  nectar  secretion  in  Berkshire  region  of  Massachusetts.  94 

source  of  honey  in  Massachusetts 93 

Nectar,  periods  of  secretion  in  Berkshire  region  of  Massachusetts 94 

Cape  Cod  region  of  Massachusetts 95-96 

central  region  of  Massachusetts 94-95 

"Ohia  lehua."     (See  Metrosideros  polymorpha.) 
"Oi."     (See  Verbena  bonariensis.) 

Onobrychis  saliva,  source  of  honey  in  Hawaii 49 

Orange,  source  of  honey  in  Hawaii 49 

Ornamental  plants,  sources  of  honey  in  Hawaii 49 

Palm,  cocoanut,  source  of  honey  in  Hawaii 49 

royal,  source  of  honey  in  Hawaii 49 

Palms,  sources  of  honey  in  Hawaii 49 

"Paralysis "  of  bees,  food  with  relation  thereto 35 

relation  of  cause  to  treatment 41^2 

supposedly  noninfectious 37 

Paritium  tiliaceum,  exlra-floral  nectaries  a  source  of  honeydew  honey 53-54 

Pasture  planti*,  sources  of  honey  in  Hawaii 49 

Peach,  period  of  nectar  secretion  in  central  region  of  Ma-ssachusetts 94 

source  of  honey  in  Massachusetts 90,  93 

Pear,  source  of  honey  in  Ma.s.sachusetttf 90,  93 

Pea,  Tangier.     (Sec  Lathyrus  tingitanns.) 

Pepper  bush,  sweet.     (See  Clethra.) 

Perforated  zinc.     (See  Zinc,  perforated.) 

PrrL-insifUa  sarrharirida .     (Sec  Leafhopper,  sugar-cane.) 

Persea  gratutsimu,  source  of  honey  in  Hawaii 49 

PhiUuklphus  spp.     (Su  Syringa.) 


INDEX.  121 

Phillips,  E.  F.,  paper,  "A  Brief  Survey  of  Hawaiian  Beekeeping," 43-58 

"The  Status  of  Apiculture  in  the  United  States  " 59-80 

''Wax  Moths  and  American  Foul  Brood " ]9-22 

"Pickled  brood,"  age  of  brood  with  relation  thereto 34 

disease  resembling  it  in  Hawaii 57 

heredity  with  relation  thereto 34 

relation  of  cause  to  treatment 41 

supposedly  noninfectious 37 

Plants,  pollenization  by  insects 69-71 

Plum,  beach,  period  of  nectar  secretion  in  Cape  Cod  region  of  Massachusetts. . .         95 

central  region  of  Massachusetts 94 

source  of  honey  in  Massachusetts 90,  93 

Pollenization  of  plants  by  insects 69-71 

Polygonum  spp.     {See  Knotweed.) 

Poppy.     (See  Romneya  coulteri.) 

Porthetria  dispar,  damage  to  bee  keeping  industry  in  Massachusetts 104 

Prosopis  glandulosa,  source  of  honey  in  Hawaii 48 

juliflora.     (-See  Algarroba.) 

Protozoa,  relation  to  bee  diseases 37 

Prunus  spp.     {See  Peach,  Plum,  Cherry.) 

Psidium  spp.     {See  Guava.) 

"Paukala."     (See  Argemone  mexicana.) 

Pumpkin,  source  of  honey  in  Hawaii . .         49 

Pyrus  spp.     {See  Pear,  Apple.) 

Queens,  purchasing,  how  to  avoid  introduction  of  bee  diseases 30 

Race,  relation  to  bee  diseases 35 

Radish,  source  of  honey  in  Massachusetts 93 

Ranunculus  spp.     {See  Buttercups.) 

Raphanussipip.     (^ee  Radish.) 

Raspberry,  period  of  nectar  secretion  in  Berkshire  region  of  Massachusetts 94 

central  region  of  Massachusetts 94 

wild,  source  of  honey  in  Massachusetts 91,  93 

Rhus  copallina.     {See  Sumac.) 
spp.     {See  Sumac.) 

Ribes  spp.     (iSee  Gooseberry.) 

Robbing,  prevention 6,  7 

Rohinia  spp.     {See  Locust.) 

Romneya  coulteri,  source  of  honey  in  Hawaii 49 

Rose  apple.     {See  Eugenia  jambos.) 

Rubus  spp.     {See  Raspberry,  Blackberry.) 

Sages,  California.     {See  Artemisia.) 

Sa  I  ix  spp .     ( See  W  il  lo w . ) 

Sambucus  spp.     (5eg  Elderberry.) 

Sanfoin.     {See  Onobrychis  sativa.) 

Scientific  needs  of  bee  keeping  in  United  States 76-77 

Sex,  relation  to  bee  diseases 34 

Shadbush,  wild.     (See  Amelanchier  botryapium.) 

"Shaking"  treatment  for  bee  diseases 32 

"Shook  swarming."     {See  Shaking.): 

Sida  spp. ,  source  of  honey  in  Hawaii 49 

Sisal.     (See  Agave  sisalana.) 

Skunk  cabbage,  period  of  nectar  secretion  in  central  region  of  Massachusetts. . .         95 

source  of  honey  in  Massachusetts 92,  93 

pollen  for  bees 92 

7801 3  °  — B  u  1 1 .  If)— 1 1 9 


122  .MIS(  KI.LANEOUS    PAPERS   ON    APICULTURE. 

Pajfe. 

Snuirtwoed.  period  of  noctar  secretion  in  Berkshire  region  of  Massachusetts 94 

central  region  of  Massachusetts 94 

Solidago  aejnperviretis,  perio<l  of  nectar  secretion  in  Cape  Cod  region  of  Massa- 

chusetti^ 95 

spp.     (vS^-c  Goldenrocls.) 

Sophora  chrysophylln,  honey  plant  in  Hawaii 48 

i'^panish  needle.     (See  Bidens  pilosa.) 
Spdthycinafietidn.     {See  Skunk  cabbage.) 

Spirochacta  apis,  supposed  relation  to  bee  dL^ease 37 

Squashes,  Bource  of  honey  in  Hawaii 49 

Statistical  needs  of  bee  keeping  in  United  States 76 

Strawberry,  period  of  possible  nectar  secretion  in  Cape  Cod  region  of  Massachu- 
setts          95 

source  of  honey  in  Massachusetts 91,  92,  93 

Sugar,  cane,  detection  in  honey 17 

invert,  adulterant  of  honey 10 

detection  in  honey 17-18 

Sumac,  period  of  nectar  secretion  in  Berkshire  region  of  Massachusetts 94 

Cape  Cod  region  of  Massachusetts 95 

source  of  honey  in  Massachusetts 91,  93 

Sunflower,  brook,  period  of  nectar  secretion  in  Berkshire  region  of  Massachu- 
setts          94 

source  of  honey  in  Massachusetts 92,  93 

Swarming,  source  of  loss  to  beekeepers 71-72 

Syringa,  source  of  honey  in  Massachusetts 93 

Tamarindus  indica,  source  of  honey  in  Hawaii 49 

Taraxacum  spp.     {See  Dandelion.) 

Tariff  on  honey  and  wax,  1842-1897 64 

Tea,  New  Jersey.     (See  Ceanothus  americanus.) 

Thevelia  neriifolia,  source  of  honey  in  Hawaii 49 

Thorough  wort,  period  of  nectar  secretion  in  central  region  of  Massachusetts 95 

Thyme.     (See  Thymus  serpy Hum.) 

Thymus  serpyllum ,  source  of  honey  in  Massachusetts 93 

Tiering  in  extracted  honey  production 4-5 

Tilia  spp.     {Set  Basswood  and  Linden.) 

Trees,  forest,  sources  of  honey  in  Hawaii 48 

fruit,  sources  of  honey  in  Hawaii 49 

Tri/olium  agrarium .     (Sec  Clover,  yellow.) 
hybridum.     (5ec  Clover,  alsike.) 
incarnatum.     {See  Clover,  crimson.) 
pratense.     {See  Clover,  red.) 
repcns.     (5e€  Clover,  white.) 
t/Zmitsspp.     (/Sec  Elm.) 

Uncapping  box  or  can 6-7 

honey 6 

knives.     {See  Knives.) 
Vntcniiiim  spp.     {See  Blueberry  and  Cranberry.  > 

Vrrhrna  honariensis,  s<nirce  of  honey  in  Hawaii 49 

Viburnum,  source  of  honey  in  Ma.^sachusetts 93 

\'i(jiin  rntjanq,  sour<"e  of  honey  in  Massachusetts 93 

Wnlthrria  amrricana,  source  of  honey  in  Hawaii 49 

Wattle,  black,     (^ee  Acacia.) 


INDEX.  123 

Page. 

Wax,  imports  and  exports 64-68,  79 

moths.     {See  also  Bee  moths,  Galleria  melloneUa ,  and  Achroia  grisella.) 

and  American  foul  brood 19-22 

moth,  large.     (See  Galleria  mellonella .) 
lesser.     (See  Achroia  grisella.) 

production  in  Hawaii 54-56 

Massachusetts 89 

United  States,  average  annual  value 61,  79 

statistics  of  Twelfth  Census 62-63 

tariff  schedules,  acts  of  1842-1897 64 

waste  in  bee  keeping 72-73 

"Weeds,  honey  plants  in  Hawaii 49 

White,  G.  F.,  paper,  "The  Relation  of  the  Etiology  (Cause)  of  Bee  Diseases  to 

the  Treatment " 33-42 

WTiite-sage  honey,  slow  granulation 9 

"Wiliwili."     {See  Erythrina  monosperma.) 

Willow,  defoliation  by  gipsy  moth  and  brown- tail  moth 104 

period  of  nectar  secretion  in  central  region  of  Massachusetts 95 

pussy,  period  of  nectar  secretion  in  Berkshire  region  of  Massachusetts. .  94 

source  of  pollen  for  bees 92 

Witch-hazel.     (See  Hamamelis  virginiana.) 

Zinc,  perforated,  in  extracted  honey  production 5 

Zoological  needs  of  bee  keeping  in  United  States 76-77 

o 


UNIVERSITY  OF  FLORIDA 

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